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SERIES 



BEGIMNINGS 

IN 

AGRICULTURE 




W OIUU B IM II m i l l W— I I I I I I I I BB WMWMI M I IWIiWgWBPWWaa^^ 



Ube IRural Uext^Book Series 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



BEGINNINGS IN AGRICULTURE 



E\)t Eural Ent'MoQk Series 

Mann, Beginnings in Agriculture. 
Warren, Elements of Agriculture. 
Lyon and Fippin, Soil Management. 
J. F. DuGGAR, Southern Field Crops. 
B. M. DuGGAR, Plant Physiology. 
Others m preparation. 




A Good Citizen of the Farm. — Grand Champion Shorthorn Cow, 
Dorothea 2d. Bred at Meadow Lane Stock Farm, in Minnesota. 



BEGINNINGS 



IN 



AGRICULTURE 



BY 



ALBERT B. MANN 

SECRETARY TO THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEfri, 
OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1911 

All rights reaerved 



/ 

6^ A ^3 



Copyright, 1911, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published June, igii. 



NoriHooti ^rrss : 
S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



CI.A2S1)0G4 



s, PREFACE 

This book is designed for the purpose of introducing the study of 
agriculture into the seventh and eighth grades of our elementary 
schools. It may also meet a need in some of the smaller high- 
schools and in ungraded special and private schools. When the 
pupil comes to well-developed high-school work, he will need a more 
detailed and specific text. 

The book is founded on the suggestions in the Report of the 
Committee on Industrial Education in Schools for Rural Communi- 
ties, of the National Educational Association. That Committee 
recommended for the school years 6 to 8, four sets of subjects as 
follows : first half year, the affairs of agriculture ; second half year, 
the soil ; second year, farming schemes and crops ; third year, ani- 
mals. A condensation of this plan into a two-year scheme has been 
attempted in the present volume. 

It has been the aim of the author to cover the work very largely 
in a nature-study spirit, by which it is meant that the pupil shall 
be brought into as close touch as possible with the actual farms, 
soils, crops, animals, and affairs. The problems are intended to 
set the pupils at work on their own account rather than to enable 
them to answer questions that may be suggested in the text. 

It is, of course, essential to practical school conditions that there 
shall be reading-matter and recitation-matter in the book. Perhaps 
Part I, dealing with the general agricultural situation, may be used 
as a series of introductory reading and discussion exercises, the 
actual work with subject-matter to begin with Part II. The open- 
book method of teaching, now used successfully in many schools 
for history and geography, might be employed advantageously with 
this text, especially in schools in which nature-study receives little 
attention. 



vi PREFACE 

It is assumed that the teacher will see that the pupils work out 
the problems, or as many of them as have useful application to the 
aifairs of the particular communit}'. It is to be hoped that there 
will be a school-garden on the premises, or that small areas may 
be set aside at the homes of the pupils, on which many of the sug- 
gestions in the book may be worked out personally. It is specially 
to be desired that the parents be brought into the work, in order 
that the agricultural affairs of the community may be related to 
the school. Therefore, a large number of problems have been pre- 
sented with this end in view, the expectation being that the pupil 
will ask the parents for the proper solution of the questions. 

Field trips, to study at first hand the subjects discussed in the 
lessons, will add greatly to the interest and value of the work, and^--_^ 
will give it local and personal application. It is important that the 
pupils shall study the things themselves, so far as it is possible, 
rather than study about them. 

The author realizes that it is very difficult to introduce agriculture 
on a uniform basis in the schools in all parts of the country, owing 
to the marked diversity in agricultural conditions ; yet there are 
certain common and underlying problems and situations with which 
all school children should be familiar. The aim of the book has 
been to relate the pupil and the school to these general and essential 
situations. It. is assumed that detailed technical discussions of the 
modes of raising certain crops and animals should not be introduced 
into the elementary grades. This part of the work must be reserved 

for the hi<2:h-school and the college. 

A. R. MANN. 
Ithaca, New York, 
June 1, 1911. 



CONTENTS 

PART I. THE AFFAIRS OF AGRICULTURE 

PAGES 

Chapter I. The Community in which I Live 3 

Its natural features, industries, division of labor. 

Chapter II. The Geography of the Locality and the Continent . 6 

Kelation to natural conditions, distribution of plants, markets. 

Chapter III. Agriculture . . . . . . . . .11 

Its nature, history, kinds, values. 

Chapter IV. The Farmer 17 

What he contributes, his business, his year's work. 

Chapter V. The Farm 22 

Its home, buildings, land, arrangement, attractiveness, health. 

Chapter VI. The Farm Plants 27 

Use for food, manufacture, building, pleasure ; relation to soil fer- 
tility, climate, farm work ; plant societies. 

Chapter VII. The Farm Animals ....... 34 

Source ; use for food, work, clothing ; relation to soil fertility and 
to kind of farming. 

Chapter VIII. The Farmer's Aids ....... 41 

The school, church, transportation, telephone, mail service, country 
fair, farmers' clubs, creamery, government institutions. 

PART II. THE SOIL 

Chapter IX. What the Soil Is ........ 51 

Its nature and source ; the work of sun, air, water, ice, plants, 
animals. 



viii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter X. The Nature and Composition of the Soil ... 59 

Kinds of soil, peat, muck, clay, loam, sand, gravel ; weight ; com- 
position ; source of plant-food ; relation to farming in locality. 

Chapter XI. The Soil Water ........ 66 

Relation to plant growth ; how it enters the soil, is held, moves ; 
drainage ; irrigation ; relation to soil temperature. 

Chapter XII. The Soil Air 76 

Relation to plant growth ; nature ; where it is, how it gets there. 

Chapter XIII. Plant Life in the Soil 80 

How germs live in the soil, what they do ; formation of nitrates ; 
soil inoculation ; soil diseases. 



Chapter XIV. The Tillage of the Soil 85 

History ; what it does ; relation to plant-food and moisture ; tools ; 
dry-farming. 

Chapter XV. The Improvement of the Soil ..... 99 

Plant-food, phosphoric acid, potash, nitrogen, animal manures, 
green manures ; storing an account. 



PART III. FARM PLANTS 

Chapter XVI. The Nature of Plants . . .... 107 

Parts of the plant, root system, stem, leaf system, flower and fruit. 

Chapter XVII. Classification or Plants 116 

Differences and relationships among plants ; classification by length 
of life and by use ; botanist's classification. 

Chapter XVIII. Dissemination and Multiplication of Plants . 124 

Nature's methods, man's methods, propagation by seeds, roots, 
tubers, cuttings, buds, and gra,fts. 

Chapter XIX. Rotation of Crops . 130 

What it is ; an example ; purpose ; planning a system ; history. 



CONTENTS ix 

PAGE 

Chapter XX. Indian Corn 136 

History, ^lace in American agriculture, description, kinds, culture, 
the silo, enemies, uses. 

Chapter XXI. Wheat 146 

History, production, description, kinds, culture, uses. 

Chapter XXII. Grasses — Meadows and Pastures .... 155 

Native grasses, cultivated grasses, meadows, pastures, timothy, blue- 
grass. 

Chapter XXIII. Clovers and their Kin 163 

Importance and uses; clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, other clover-like 
plants. 

Chapter XXIV. Potato 171 

History, place in agriculture, description, culture, enemies, uses ; 
sweet potatoes. 

Chapter XXV. The Orchard 177 

Location, planting the trees, tilling, fertilizing, pruning, spraying, 
harvesting ; apples, peaches, pears, plums, cherries. 

Chapter XXVI. The Farm Garden 186 

Location, soil, planting, watering ; starting the plants ; planting out- 
doors ; care and harvesting ; small fruits. 

Chapter XXVII. The Wood Crop 192 

Importance, place on the farm, history ; distinction between field 
crops and wood crops ; nature of the wood crop ; battle of the trees ; 
care of the woodlot ; forestry. 

Chapter XXVIII. Weeds 201 

Why they grow, their harm, control. 

«, 
Chapter XXIX. Insect Enemies of Plants ..... 208 

Nature ; damage ; nature's aid ; methods of control. 

Chapter XXX. Diseases of Plants ....... 215 

Nature ; how they spread ; control. 



X CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter XXXI. Improvement of Plants ...... 222 

How improvement has come about ; differences among plants, value ; 
improving present types ; creating new types. 

PART IV. FARM ANIMALS 

Chapter XXXII. The Needs of Farm Animals ..... 233 

Food requirements, water, mineral matter, nitrogenous matter, fat, 
air, shelter, rest, exercise, cleanliness. 

Chapter XXXIII. The Feeding or Farm Animals .... 242 
Choice of food, balanced rations, nutritive ratio ; kinds of foods ; 
fodders, roots and tubers, concentrated foods. 

Chapter XXXIV. Horses 250 

History ; types ; draft, coach, trotting, and saddle horses ; the thor- ^"~- 
oughbred ; horse training ; harness ; feeding and care ; grooming. 

Chapter XXXV. Cattle *. . . . 2G1 

History, beef and dairy types, breeds, feeding and care. 

Chapter XXXVI. Sheep " . 270 

History, wool and mutton types, breeds ; wool production ; mutton 
production ; sheep-farming in America. 

Chapter XXXVII. Swine 278 

History, nature, lard and bacon types, breeds, rearing. 

Chapter XXXVIII. Poultry 284 

Origin of domestic fowls, nature, breeds, eggs, care. 

Chapter XXXIX. Bees 21)1 

History, races, the colony, life and work, swarming, protection. 

Chapter XL. Milk and its Products 298 

What inilk is, composition, skimmed milk, buttermilk, weight, care 
in handling, Babcock test, butter and cheese. 

Chapter XLI, The Improvement of Animals ..... 310 
Breeding, what to breed for, choice of parents, the offspring, pedi- 
gree, improving the farm, live-stock. 



PART I 

THE AFFAIRS OF AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER I 

THE COMMUNITY IN WHICH I LIVE 

Happy the man whose wish and care 

A few paternal acres bound, 
Content to breathe his native air 

In his owTi ground. — Pope. 

It is a beautiful country in which I live. To the south is the 
village, with its churches and school, and with little dwelling-houses 
scattering out into the fields. There is a factory with tall chimneys 
that roll out windrows of smoke. On all other sides is the wide 
open country. There are long meadows, and hills that slope up 
to the sk}^ There are winding roads, bounding broad, green, fer- 
tile fields. There are brooks that dash down the hillsides and then 
wander over lowlands and sleep in the deep marshes. There are 
dense pieces of woodland and sentinel trees standing in the fields. 
Beyond the nearest highway is a sandy field in which sorrel grows. 
To the west of the road is land of hard clay, now rank with grass 
and clover, and in the spring yellow with the gold of dandehons. 
Beyond the barn is a wild sweep of pigweeds, invading the land 
that has been neglected and teaching lessons of thrift and of abihty 
to seize opportunities. There are cattle dozing under maple trees 
at noonday. There are flocks of crows that travel westward in 
the morning and eastward at night. Stretching outward one sees 
miles of corn and meadow and grain and other crops. 

The work that we do. — Every family in this country where I 
live has its own means of gaining a livelihood. One man is a stone 
mason. Others work in the factory. Several buy and sell in the 
village. One is employed by the government to care for the mails. 

3 



4 AGRICULTURE 

Some are physicians, some clergymen. Many are farmers. All 
together they make up the community, each person contributing 
some share to the welfare of the whole. Every occupation in 
which they engage is necessary, and therefore one is as worthy as 




Fig. 1. — There are grain fields, and hills, that slope up to the sky 



another. M}' father's occupation is farming, and he is a member of 
the community. 

The division of labor. — One part of the community depends on 
all other parts. If the blacksmiths should move from the village, 
father would be obliged to drive six miles farther to have his horses 
shod, and that would mean less work done on the farm or else 



THE COMMUNITY IN WHICH I LIVE 5 

extra labor to hire. If those persons who produce milk were to 
retire from the business, the village people would be obliged to keep 
cows, or to pay to have milk brought in from other places. There 
is division of labor, — one person performing one kind of work for 
the community, another person performin,& some other work. 
Each depends on the other, and the welfare of the community is 
dependent on all. 

Probletn 1. How many kinds of occupations are represented in your 
community, — say in your school district ? What do the people do for 
a livelihood ? 

Problem 2. What is the leading occupation, — the one that engages 
the greater number of persons ? Would you say that your community is 
a farming community, manufacturing community, trading community, 
wage-earning community, or some other kind? 

Problem 3. Tell what is the leading farming occupation. Do most 
of the farmers call themselves fruit-growers, or dairymen, or grain- 
farmers, or general farmers, or stockmen, or gardeners, or florists? 

Problem 4- Are there any establishments in the community, or nearby, 
that make manufactured products from the materials that the farmer 
raises, — as beet-sugar factories, cotton mills, creameries, canning factories, 
grist mills, cider mills, pickle factories? 

Problem 5. Are there any establishments that manufacture articles 
chiefly for the farmer's use, — as barrel factories, fertilizer factories, im- 
plement factories ? Perhaps your teacher will want you to visit one or 
more of these establishments, and then to describe them. 



CHAPTER II 

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE LOCALITY AND THE CONTINENT 

A GREAT many yoars ago, when our country was new, j)ioneers 
came and settled in this protected valk\y. Their famihes grew up, 
other families moved in, the store and the shop came, and there was 
established a community. One after another, settlements sprang 
up in other localities, farth(M- to the west, in like manner. 

The local geographical conditions. — In each of the communities 
the leading industries were (U^termined largely by the special 
natural advantages which the locality offered. One, because of 
good w;iti>r power, became a manufacturing center; another, by 
the river, became a shipping or commercial center ; one, in a cold 
and densely wooded region, became a hunting and trapping center ; 
others, with rich soil and favorable climate, became farming 
centers. Some of the farming regions had long seasons, some 
short ; some had much rain, others little ; some were on steep, 
rocky hillsides, others in rich, deep valleys; some developed one 
kind of farming, some another kind. 

This region is part of the world. — There are many conditions 
in this local world, in which the school-house and the farm-house are 
the centers. If the locality were to be magnified one hundred or 
one thousand times, we should have such conditions as make up a 
state or perhaps a whole country. AVe should then have greater 
range of climate, more varieties of soil, more kinds of animals and 
of })lants. Now that we know something of our local world, we 
may learn of the greater world beyond. 

The continental topography. — Geographers tell us that the 
United States, not including its possessions, covers an area of 

6 



GEOGRAPHY OF LOCALITY AND CONTINENT 




AGRICULTURE 




GEOGRAPHY OF LOCALITY AND CONTINENT 9 

3,026,789 square miles. Canada is even larger, with 3,745,574 
square miles. This vast area, extending from the ever-frozen and 
desolate north to the warm sub-tropical south, is broken by lofty 
mountains ranges, between which nestle fertile valleys and broad 
plateaus, winding rivers, and broad, deep lakes that help to keep 
the balance between the cold of winter and the heat of summer. 
These varying physical features unite to form what we call the 
topography of the land. 

Plant geography. — Because of its great extent and varying 
topography, and the conditions under which it was formed. North 
America has many different kinds of climate and of soil, and there- 
fore has a great variety of plant life. In the far north, where the 
ground is always frozen, except a thin surface layer for a few weeks 
in summer, vegetation is very scant ; there are a few scrubby wil- 
lows and birches, and short-season grasses and flowering plants. 

As we move gradually southward we find a greater range of plant 
life, and the plants grow more profusely. Along the southern 
border of the great forests of Canada and jutting down into the 
United States, there is a region where wild small-fruits abound, as 
blackberries, raspberries, and cranberries. Here, in places, the 
potato, timothy-grass, and some of the more hardy grains thrive. 

Moving southward again, we enter the warmer, humid regions, 
those having moderate rainfall, and including southern Canada and 
most of the United States, except large areas in the southwest. 
In this region we find such crops as wheat, oats, rye, barley, varie- 
ties of corn, potatoes, sugar-beets, and tree-fruits in the more north- 
ern parts, with the addition of peaches, flax, hemp, hma beans, 
sorghum, and tobacco farther south. In the extreme south, cotton, 
sugar-cane, rice, peanuts, pecans, oranges, and lemons are staple 
crops. 

In the arid and semi-arid regions in the southwest, where the 
rainfall is insufficient and irrigation is required to grow crops to 
advantage, corn, grains, potatoes, sugar-beets, fruits, alfalfa, kafir 
corn, sorghum, sweet potato, and tobacco are grown. 



10 AGRICULTURE 

There is a constantly changing farming, with different kinds of 
crops, as we move from one geographical region to another. 

Relation to markets. — After the plants and animals are grown, 
the farmer must place them on the best markets ; he needs good 
avenues of transportation to reach the markets. Here, again, the 
geography is important, — the nearness to cities or shipping ports, 
and the accessibility of rail and water routes. The farmers in a 
locality will produce the kinds of crops and animals for which they 
have a market, and which they may transport to market by the 
means that are available. 

The geography of a locahty, then, has much influence in deter- 
mining the kind of farming, as the plants must be chosen to suit 
the soils, the climate, and the markets. x^ 

Problem 6. What are the leading crops in your state or general geo- 
graphical region? Are some crops grown more largely in certain parts 
of the state than in others? Can you tell why? 

Problem 7. Is the rainfall in your locality sufficient to meet the needs 
of the farm crops? Is the growing season long or short? If there are 
high hills, is the season any shorter on the hilltops than in the valleys ? 

Problem 8. Are there different kinds of soil in your locality ? Are 
some much wetter than others ? Do some contain much more sand than 
others? What kinds of plants grow on each? Is there any noticeable 
difference between the soil on the hilltop and that in the lowlands ? 

Problem 9. Determine what kinds of farm produce are sold by the 
farmers, and whether the products are sold in your village or city, or 
shipped away. If shipped away, where do the products go ? How many 
kinds of shipping facilities are there, and what kinds of products are 
shipped by each? 

Problem 10. With a map, trace out the leading farming regions on the 
continent. 



CHAPTER III 

AGRICULTURE 

One of the occupations in which persons engage is agriculture ; 
and more persons are engaged in this occupation than in any other. 
About one-third of the population of North America are farmers 
Farming is therefore the most important industry in this country. 
It leads also because it produces most of the food-supply for the 
nation, and the raw materials for many other industries. 

What agriculture is. — When we use the word " farming/' we 
think of the running of a farm and the raising of products on the 
land. The products. are plants or parts of plants, which we call 
crops, and animals or their products. When we speak of " agri- 
culture," we mean all the enterprises connected with the farm in 
addition to the raising of plants and animals. Agriculture is a 
broader term than farming, and includes marketing, the making of 
farm buildings, good roads, farm forests, farm machinery, farm 
labor, the farm home, farm life, and everything else in which the 
farmer is interested in connection with his business. 

Agriculture was the first settled occupation of man. We read 
that the first man whom God created was placed in a garden to 
keep it. From that time to the present, all progress of the human 
race has been closely associated with agriculture and dependent 
on it. 

Indian agriculture. — Before the white man came to America, 
the Indians cultivated a few plants for food, more especially maize 
(commonly known as Indian corn) , and beans, squashes, pumpkins, 
and sunflowers. Cotton and tobacco also were cultivated. Most of 
the food-plants of the Indians were harvested in their wild state, 

11 



12 AGRICULTURE 

without cultivation. When Jamestown was founded, every family 
of the Algonquin, or Virginian Indians, had its garden, prepared 
by the men and planted by the women. The New England Indian 
families also had their gardens of. one half acre to about one and 
one half acres in extent, which they tilled with their clam-shell 
hoes. The families helped one another, and when a field was to 
be broken up, as an old chronicle records, they had a " loving, so- 
ciable, speedy way to dispatch it. All the neighbors men and 
women, fortie, fiftie, etc., joine and came in to helpe freely." 

The southeastern Indian towns had their farms in one piece, in 
which each family had a small lot fenced about by a strip of grass, 
poles, or other means. Each year they elected an overseer who 
directed all the garden work. At daybreak he awakened the 
families by a loud cry, gathered the men with their simple tools in 
the public square, and at sunrise led them into the fields. Later 
the women came with the provisions. 

The southwestern Indians, in the arid regions, conducted farm- 
ing by means of irrigation. 

While the Indian methods of farming were crude, yet the early 
colonists found a system of agriculture that was of great help to 
them. 

Colonial agriculture. — The colonists continued the cultivation 
of corn, tobacco, cotton, beans, melons, squashes, and potatoes, 
which they found here, and they introduced many crops from 
Europe. Wheat was the first crop brought over by the Virginia 
colony. At this time the chief live-stock was hogs and goats, and 
a few cows ; but cattle were rapidly introduced from Europe. 
The first cattle ranches in America were in Virginia. From the 
first the colonists had a few horses for use as pack animals, but 
most of the farm work was performed by oxen. 

Cattle were brought into New England in 1624, but cattle- 
raising did not become important at that time, except for dairy- 
ing. Corn was the most important crop. The New England col- 
onists followed the Indian custom of planting beans and pumpkins 



AGRICULTURE 13 

among the corn. Wheat, rye, buckwheat, and barley were grown 
to a hmited extent. The native grasses were cultivated, among 
them timothy, which has remained the principal hay crop to the 
present day. 

The westward growth. — With the close of the Revolutionary 
War there came to the colonists in the United States a vast terri- 
tory reaching westward to the Mississippi River, and agriculture 
w^as extended to the w^est and south. Cotton became the most 




Fig. 4. — With the westward growth, cattle ranches were established. 

important crop in the south. Mules were raised for work on the 
cotton plantations. Live-stock raising took on new importance, 
and cattle, of both milk and beef breeds, and horses were imported, 
especially from England, in large numbers. Much attention was 
later given to the improvement of farm machinery, and new and 
better implements were introduced. Farming became more spe- 
cialized as better means of transportation were provided. More 
than 30,000 miles of railroads were built before 18G0. The im- 
provement of plants and animals went hand in hand with the im- 
portation of the best animals from Europe. 

As still other land to the west was added to the area of the United 
States, agriculture gradually pushed to the Pacific coast, and the 



14 



AGRICULTURE 



large cattle ranches of the middle west, and the great wheat and 
corn farms, were developed. Railroads were extended, and many 
new labor-saving farm machines were devised. The grain sepa- 
rator or thresher, the twine-binder, the check-rower, the weeder, 
the riding cultivator, the disk harrow, the Babcock test, the cream 
separator, among many others, greatly affected the methods of 





■ ...., JX^:S^ :^*« 


^L .... -. 









Fig. 5. — Extensive wheat farms were developed. 



arming. As the arid and semi-arid regions were invaded, farming 
by irrigation was developed. 

In Canada, the westward expansion came more slowly, although 
a very effective agriculture developed in the older eastern prov- 
inces. With the recent completion of great continental railroads, 
however, the vast western Canadian country was opened up, and 
the great provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Brit- 
ish Columbia are already large producers of wheat, cattle, and other 
products. The greatest expansion into new territory on the North 
American continent is now taking place in these provinces. 

In the last thirty years, farming in the United States and Canada 



AGRICULTURE 



15 



has made noteworthy advancement. Agricultural colleges, ex- 
periment stations, and departments of agriculture have been estab- 




FiG. 6. — When the arid regions were invaded, farming by irrigation became 

necessary. 



lished, and much expert attention has been given to the problems 
of the farmer. 

Values. — When we compare agriculture with other industries, 
we find it far in the lead in its investment and output. A single 
farm may not seem to be a large business, but when we add together 



16 AGRICULTURE 

• 

the money invested in all farm property in the United Staes, the 
sum is more than twice as much as the capital invested in all manu- 
factures. There is one half more horse-power used on American 
farms than in all our factories. The agricultural exports are more 
than half as much again as all other exports. 

Problem 11. What proportion of the people in your locality are 
farmers? What proportion are engaged in manufacturing? What pro- 
portion are merchants ? Which group, as a whole, has the most money 
invested in its business? 

Problem 12. What farm products are shipped from your vicinity? 
What manufactured products? If we could put all the farm products 
together, would they have greater or less value than the manufactured 
products? The manufacturer makes his living by what he sells. Does 
the farmer make a considerable part of his living aside from what he s^s ? 
The manufacturer may seem to handle more money than the farmerT 
Which has to spend more ? 

Problem 13. Can you find out who was the first farmer in your locality 
and what kind of farm he had ? Which are the oldest houses ? Do they 
stand near the main road ? If there are fences, which are the oldest and 
how are they built? Did the farmers in your locality always conduct 
the same kind of farming as now? Are there any evidences left by 
Indians to show that they once lived there? 

Problem 14- Relate any history or historical incident that illustrates 
the agricultural development of your locality. Write an account of any 
of the leading former farmers of the locality. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE FARMER 

We have learned that farming is the greatest industry in the 
United States and Canada. It is worth our while to become ac- 
quainted with the man who, on his own farm, master of his work, 
makes it so. 

What the farmer contributes. — There are three things we all 
must have in order to live, — food, clothing, and shelter. We may 




Fig. 7. — The farmer is master of his work. 

let all other possessions go, but these three are indispensable. 
Where can we get them except from the farm? All our food (ex- 
cept that from the sea) comes originally from the farm, or at least 
from the land; silks and woolens, cotton goods and linen goods, 
all are made from animal and plant products raised on the farm ; 
the wood for buildings is taken from the great farm, for trees are 
a farm crop, as we shall learn later. These necessities are what the 
farmer contributes to the nation. 

Nature of the farmer's business. — Every man in the community 
has his business, his means of earning a hving and of helping others 
c 17 



18 ' AGRICULTURE 

to live. The farmer's business is to make an honest Hving from his 
farm, by the raising and selhng of crops and hve-stock, or their 
products. His business is very different from that of other men. 
He buys relatively little and usually does not sell the things that 
he buys^ He produces the things that he sells, and brings to the 
market newly created materials. Even when he buj^s materials 
to sell, he multiplies them or increases their value. When he buys 
cattle to sell, he usually keeps the cattle until they are mature or 




Fig. 8. — Stock is reared for sale. 

fat ; he makes his money largely on the feeding and the care that 
he gives them. 

In some parts of the country, most of the farmers make their 
liveUhood from selling butter and cheese ; in others, from selling 
milk ; in others, from selling corn ; in others, from selling cattle 
and pigs to which the corn has been fed ; in others, from cotton ; 
in others, from vegetables or fruit or grain ; in others, from flowers 
and nursery products. As in the village there are general stores, 
in which one can buy almost anything he needs, and special stores, 
in which he can buy drugs or shoes or clothing or jewelry, so there 
are general farms and special farms. One farmer may produce 
milk, eggs, fruit, grain, and potatoes for sale ; another may produce 



THE FARMER 19 

only vegetables or cotton or wheat or fat stock for sale. The char- 
acter of one's business, or farming, is determined by the kind of 
product that he sells. 

The farmer must make an honest living, — he must not rob 
his land. His success depends on the fertility of his land. As the 
manufacturer invests money to keep his buildings and machinery 
in repair, so the farmer must keep his factory, or his land, at its 
best, so that he can have a permanent paying business. Time 
and money invested in keeping the farm in repair usually pay 
large dividends. The best farmers are the ones who apply business 
methods in their farming. 

The farmer's year's work. — Nearly every day brings to the 
farmer a new task, calling for a different kind of effort and drawing 
on new powers within him. A progressive farmer must be a grow- 
ing, broadening man, becoming more intelligent and more expert 
with the years. While he works with his hands, his mind will be 
active in solving new problems. 

Every farm boy and girl knows that the farmer has his full 
year's work. In the winter, when the land is quiet, and while he is 
feeding his stock and perhaps getting out his wood, he becomes 
carpenter and mechanic as well as farmer, and repairs his buildings 
and tools and machines and makes the many things that he has 
needed, but has had to wait for. At the same time he is looking 
forward to spring and summer so that he may not be unprepared 
for them. If he is a careful man and takes stock of his business, 
now is the time when he will cast up his accounts and discover the 
real gains and losses, and determine changes in his farming. 

When the frost is out of the ground, and the warm days begin to 
come, the father and his son swing into the furrow behind good, 
steady teams and turn over great stretches of land for the summer's 
crops. Then follows the fitting, the seeding, the care, on to the 
harvest — the hay and the grain harvest, the corn harvest, and 
the apple harvest. And each morning and evening, as the sun 
rises, and before it sets, the cattle may be driven to the barn, 



20 



AGRICULTURE 



milked, and returned again to pasture. If he is a grain farmer 
alone (as in same parts of the west and of California), he may take 
a vacation after the harvest. 

As the fall draws on, and the crops are securely stored for the 
winter or sent to the market, the slaughtering is past and the 
smoke-house closed, and perhaps a few acres have been plowed so as 
to be beforehand in the spring, the farmer has the sense of satis- 




^5««(il"^!*- 



r^i^ttihf. -'S^^' 



Fig. 9. — The farmer swings into the furrow behind a good, steady teai 



faction in the work of his hands. But he is not through, 
morrow will have its tasks. He is ready for them. 



To- 



Problem 15. What does your farm contribute to the community? 
What kinds of food products do you sell ? 

Problem 16. Go to the grocery store and look over the stock on the 
shelves. How much of the grocer's stock came originally from the farm ? 
How much of it might have been produced in your locality? What 
would become of the grocery if the farms should cease to produce ? What 
would the people in the villages do if the grocery store had to close ? Are 
the people dependent on the farmer ? 

Problem 17. If any of the farmers in your locahty keep sheep, what 
is done with the wool ? What farm crops enter into the making of cotton 
goods and linen goods ? 

Problem. 18. How many buildings in the locality can you name that 
were built from lumber taken from the woods in the vicinity ? Is there 



THE FARMER 21 

any kind of factory in the vicinity which uses the wood from the 
farms ? 

Problem 19. Does your father keep an account of his farm transac- 
tions? How much did he get for his wheat last year? For his hay? 
From his cattle ? Do you know how much it cost him to produce any of 
these ? 



CHAPTER V 

THE FARM 

Tiiio I'lirin is tli(' fanner's place of business. It is the means by 
which he earns his hvin^' and contributes his part to the commu- 
nity. Ther(^ is buyinj>- and selhn^-. There is production and dis- 
tiil)iiti()n. The farm is a commcn-cial estabhshment. 

The farm establishment. — In our grandfathers' time, not only 
were food and materials for clothing produced on the farm, but 
here, also, the finished products were manufactured. Those were 
the days of hornespim. Now the manufacturing is largely a dis- 
tinct business, and the farm merely provides the raw materials. 

Yet we may say that the farm is the greatest of all factories, 
for it yields new materials that can never be created by machines 
made by man. The farmer plants his seed, gives it care, and the 
gr(^at soil-and-air factory slowly but surely turns out its wonderful 
product. And it yields its products, not one at a time, but in 
numbers too great to be counted. 

There are three elements or parts to every farm that must be 
considered in making a ])lan for the ])usiness, — the home, the farm 
buildings, and the land. 

The home. — Farming is practically the only business of which 
the hoHK* is a part. In nearly all other occupations, the man 
leaves the home and goes to his work or his business in the morning, 
and returns home at night, leaving behind the affairs of the day. 
The farmer livens with his business. Th(i home is, therefore, an 
essential part of his business, and nmst be so ordered as to help 
him ; and he must take it into consideration in all his plans for his 
work. 

22 



THE FARM 



23 



The farm buildings. — We are likely to judge a farm by its 
buildings, for they generally reveal thrift or carelessness on the part 
of the owner. And they are a fair test, for they indicate the 
farmer's care for his crops and his animals, although the farm may 
not be profitable in proportion as the buildings are attractive. 
Good buildings are a help to the farmer, not only for the comfort 
they bring to his hve-stock and the protection of his harvested 
crops, but as well because they teach order and care and pride. 




Fig. 10. — We are likely to judge a farm by its buildings. 



The house and the farm buildings are part of the farm investment, 
and they must yield returns to the farmer in good and long- 
continued service. 

The land. — The land is the most important part of the farmer's 
investment, as it is to give him his living and yield his largest 
returns. It is his most valuable trust, and must be carefully safe- 
guarded, not only for his use, but for the use of all who will come 
after him. The value of a farm to the community depends on the 
land and the use that is made of it. The land largely determines 
the kind of farming that is to be done, the products that are to be 
sold, and the work the farmer has to do. 

The plan of the farm. — Any business, if it is to be successful, 
must be well organized. This is especially true of the farm because 



24 



AGRICULTURE 



of the distances that must be traveled in doing the work. The 
farmer should organize or lay out his farm so that he will have to 
travel least in doing his work, as travel takes time and time costs 
money, and it consumes his energy. He must be able to reach all 
his fields in the most direct way, to avoid long hauls. He places 
the garden nearest the house because it is most often visited. 




Fig. 11. — Negro farming in the South. 



The barns and pens are generally near the house also, as the 
farmer must go to them very often to care for his stock. They 
should be placed where they can be reached most conveniently. 

Some parts of the farm are better adapted to the kinds of crops 
the farmer wishes to grow than are others ; the soils, elevations, 
exposures, and other natural features are different and must be 
taken into account. The size and shape of the fields must be con- 
sidered in connection with the rotation of crops that is to be fol- 



THE FARM 25 

lowed. The size of the fields will also affect the ease with which the 
work may be done and the kind of machiner}- that may be used. 
The farmer may have to contend with creeks, woods, hills, or other 
natural boundaries in laying out the fields on his farm. 

It is just such factors that make a farm plan necessary. The 
farmer must include every part of his farm in his plan, so that it 
may all be used, year after year, for the largest return at the least 
expense, without lessening the fertiUty of the soil. The way in 
which he subdivides his farm, therefore, determines in large meas- 
ure the success of a man's farming. 

Attractiveness of the farm. — Our lives are greatly affected by 
the conditions in which we live. No one cares to live in a run-down, 
unattractive place. One slovenly farm is a blot on the neighbor- 
hood. As the farm is the farmer's permanent home, it should pro- 
vide as much beauty and attractiveness and homelikeness as pos- 
sible. The farmer has the means to make his home surroundings 
dehghtful. Simple planting, in good taste, and a neat and picked- 
up appearance are the first steps. An attractive farm contributes 
more than merely its products to the community; its own influ- 
ence for order and neatness is worth while. Better men and women 
grow up in neat, attractive, healthful surroundings. 

Health of the farm. — The farm should provide the most health- 
ful surroundings, since it can supply room, sunlight, fresh air, un- 
adulterated food, and exercise. But the farmer is in danger of tak- 
ing all this for granted and becoming careless. Neglect is sure to 
bring disaster. There are many ways in which disease may enter ; 
one is through the water-supplies, and the farmer must be on his 
guard against such dangers about his home. Every farm should 
have a complete water-system, with provision to carrj^ off the waste. 
Proper sanitation is as necessary on the farm as in the city, and it 
is not impossible to secure. It is wiser to provide for health than to 
fight disease. 

Problem 20. How large, in acres, is the farm on which you live, — 
your father's place of business ? What is the shape of it : oblong, square. 



26 AGRICULTURE 

irregular ? In what direction does the long way of it extend ? How is it 
subdivided ? An outline sketch or map, made by simple lines, will help 
you to understand the farm. Perhaps your father has a plan of the farm ; 
if not, you can help him to make one. Has the farm a name ? If you do 
not live on a farm, secure similar information from some person who does 
live on one ; or, better, if possible, visit the farm and find out for yourself. 

Problem 21 . Is the farm uniform (practically all alike) throughout ? 
Explain whether it is level, hilly, or swampy in parts. Tell whether there 
are brooks, ponds, rocks, or other natural features. 

Problem 22. Explain what is chiefly produced on the farm. Also, 
whether any of the farm is in woodland ; whether any of it is in waste or 
not in use; about how much is "under the plow" ? 

Problem 23. Is there much sickness on your farm ? What is the 
cause? Is the well below the barnyard so that there may be drainage 
into it ? How could you get a water-system into the house ? 

Problem 24- Give what history you can of the farm : when it was first 
made into a farm ; from whom the first farmer procured it ; who has owned — 
it from first to last ; whether any unusual events or persons are associated 
with it. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE FARM PLANTS 

Plants and animals are the products of agriculture. Plants are 
raised either for food, clothing, or shelter, or for the farm animals, 
or to supply materials used in the arts, or for pleasure. The plants 
make it possible for the animals to live, and both are necessary for 
our food-supply. 

Plants are grown for food. — A variety of plants must be grown 
for food, some kinds to be cooked and others to be eaten just as 
they come from the field or garden. The housewife goes to the 
garden to get potatoes and turnips and tender sweet-corn and green 
peas to cook, and onions, radishes, and lettuce to eat fresh and 
crisp. The farmer must supply equally nutritious foods for his 
live-stock. They require good, attractive food in variety if they 
are to do the work for which they are kept. Cattle like clean 
timothy, clover, or alfalfa hay, and hearty foods, as corn and 
cottonseed meal and gluten meal, and juicy or succulent foods, as 
corn silage, sugar-beets, or mangels. Generally, the larger part of 
the crops grown on any farm are to be used for human or animal 
food. 

For manufacture. — Many products are of little use in the form 
in which they are harvested, and must be sent to various factories, 
where they are changed and made into other materials. Cotton is 
made into cloth, and flax into linens or binding twine ; hemp is 
manufactured into burlap, twine, and carpet warp. From sugar- 
cane and sugar-beets sugar and molasses are made. From pota- 
toes starch is manufactured. Some plants are grown for medi- 
cine, some for oils or extracts, some for spices, some for perfumery, 
some for dyes. 

27 



\ 

28 AGRICULTURE 

For building. — Other plants are grown for building purposes. 
They are harvested in the woodlot or forest. They are of many 
kinds : some are hard, others soft ; some of one color, some of 
another; some grow large, so as to make long, clean lumber, and 
others grow small and knotty. Because of these differences, these 
plants serve a great variety of purposes in building. 

For pleasure. — Another group of plants is raised solely for 
pleasure, — ])ecause they are beautiful and fragrant, and make the 
place attractive. They are usually flowering plants, but not 
always. Th(^y are grown close by the house, or at the side or 
corners of the lawn, or apart in carefully kept beds. They may be 
grown in glass houses or in fields as crops to be sold. The florist 
is a farmer, because he raises plants. 

Relation of plants to soil fertility. — If the farmer is to secure — 
the best results from his land, and keep it fertile, he must grow a 
variety of plants. If one crop is grown continuously on the same 
land, the fertility of the soil will be lessened. Many cotton plan- 
tations in the south and wheat and corn farms in the west yield 
nuich less now than formerly because one crop has been grown 
continuously. When several kinds of crops are grown in succes- 
sion, or rotation, the demands on the soil are varied; and in the 
rotation some crops may be grown to turn under and enrich the 
soil. 

Special kinds of plants, called legumes, as clovers, vetches, and 
alfalfa, will enrich the soil greatly when plowed under. As plants 
helped to form the soil in the first place, they are valuable in renew- 
ing it when turned back into it. 

Relation of plants to climate. — There is still another reason 
why differ(Mit kinds of crops are grown in different localities. The 
plants nmst l^e suited to the climate. Some crops demand a long 
growing season, while others prefer a short season; some require 
a hot, dry climate, others a cool, moist climate ; some need much 
rainfall, others little. The plants that we grow must be suited to 
the climate of our region. A few miles to the north or south the 



THE FARM PLANTS 



29 





Fig. 13. — Plants may be raised solely for plea 



(p. 30) 



THE FARM PLANTS 31 

same plants might not do well at all. The northern farmer does 
not attempt to grow cotton or sugar-cane or peanuts or oranges. 
The southern farmer does not plant buckwheat and but little rye 
or oats, or root-crops for live-stock. There are different varieties 
of wheat and corn for the north and the south. Each region has 
its own varieties of crops. 

Relation to farm work. — The kinds of plants that the farmer 
grows bear a close relation to his work. If he raises garden vege- 
tables or flower plants, which demand constant careful attention, 
we say that his farming is intensive. If he grows great areas of 
wheat or corn or sugar-cane, we say his farming is extensive. With 
such large areas he cannot give much care to individual plants, 
except in fitting the soil, planting, and harvesting. 

The hay-farmer has his busiest season in mid-summer; the 
orchardman in late winter and spring with his pruning and spray- 
ing, and in the fall with his harvesting and marketing. The work 
of the stock-farmer is different from that of the crop-farmer, as he 
markets a different kind of products ; that of the rice-farmer and 
poultry-farmer is different from any of the others. 

The vegetable-gardener, using his land intensively year after 
year, must apply a great deal of fertilizer. The extensive farmer 
cannot afford to invest much in fertihzer, and must renew his land 
by crop rotation and the plowing in of vegetable matter or cover- 
crops. 

Plant societies. — Plants have associates and grow in societies. 
They must live together and get along together, just as folks must 
do ; and to do so, some must yield the best places to others. Plants 
become accustomed to each other. Some can hve in the shade, 
as in the orchard or in the forest ; and since they cannot rise into 
the sunshine and wind and storm, they are content with the cool, 
moist, quiet protection that is given them by their superiors. The 
pumpkin vines yield the sunlight to the tall corn, which is a sun- 
loving plant, and in its shade hve their lives mostly unnoticed until 
harvest. 



32 



AGRICULTURE 



Different kinds of soils and locations are associated with different 
plant societies. In the hard-tramped door-yard there. is a society 

of knot-weed and broad-leaved 
plantain, with occasional blades 
of grass and dandelions; in the 
fence row there is a society of 
briars and choke-cherries and 
hiding weeds ; in the dry, open 
field, the wire-grass and mullein 
and scattered docks associate ; in 
the old pasture the blue-grass 
and mullein and daisies and devil's 
paint brush live together ; in the 
meadow there is timothy, the lowers 
growing clover, young grasses, and 
other plants among the grasses. 

Some plants associate only with 
certain others. Cockle associates 
with wheat, not with oats or corn. 
Peas and oats will abound in the 
same field ; timothy and clover, 
corn and pumpkins, barley and 
peas, cowpeas and sorghum or 
millet, are close companions and 
will share a field together. This 
association may be due wholly to 
adaptation to each other, or to 
the fact that one (as the cockle 
in the wheat) has such a life- 
history and size of seed as will 
allow it to pass unnoticed with 
the other. 

The farmer takes advantage of plant societies and companions 
in planning his cropping systems. 




Fig. 14. — Plants have associates 
Corn and cowpeas. 



THE FARM PLANTS 33 

Problem 25. Why is one kind of farming in your locality different 
from another? What kinds of crops does the dairy-farmer produce? 
What does he market ? What kinds of crops does the fruit-grower raise ? 
Does he market anything except fruit ? 

Problem 26. Are all the crops on your father's farm grown to sell or 
to feed ? Are any grown to turn under to enrich the soil ? What kinds ? 
Why are these kinds better than others for this purpose? 

Problem 27. Do all of the farmers have their busiest seasons at the 
same time of year? What is the busiest season on your father's farm? 
Why ? Which kind of farmers have to work the greatest number of hours 
in the day — the dairy-farmers, the fruit-farmers, the stock-farmers, the 
grain-farmers, or the general farmers ? 

Problem 28. How many different kinds of plants are growing in your 
meadow? How do they behave together? Which ones seem to be 
leaders ? How many kinds of plants are in the pasture ? 

Problem 29. Does your father mix two or more kinds of seed for any 
of his crops? What seeds does he put together? Why? How do the 
different kinds of plants share the ground when they are growing ? Some 
of the crops that are sown together, as oats and peas, must be harvested 
together; others may be harvested separately. What makes the dif- 
ference? How many companion crops can you name? 



CHAPTER VII 

THE FARM ANIMALS 

When man was yet in a savage condition, he captured animals 
from the wilds and made them his slaves. He lived largely by 
hunting, and the meat of wild beasts formed much of his food. As 
he came to live a more settled life, he gradually hunted less and 
produced more of what he required. This made it necessary for 
him to domesticate wild creatures for work, for food, and, later^ 
for clothing. 

The source of farm animals. — When once wild beasts were 
domesticated, it was possible to develop from them new races that 
more nearly met the needs of man in a settled life. Thus, the 
earliest ancestors of all farm animals lived originally in the wild. 
They were different in appearance and usefulness from our farm 
stock to-day, which have been gradually brought into their present 
condition through years of domestication and care. 

Nearly all our farm animals were brought to this country from 
the Old World. Most of them had been domesticated before the 
new era. The turkey is the only one domesticated from wild 
ancestors in America. The bison can be doinesticated, and some 
persons are now endeavoring to develop a new race of useful farm 
animals from it. There are other wild beasts that some day may 
become part of our regular farm stock. 

While there are many wild beasts that might be useful if domes- 
ticated, the number of kinds that have been domesticated is not 
great. Those common to the farm are horses, mules, cattle (oxen, 
dairy and beef cattle), sheep, hogs, goats, chickens, ducks, geese, 
turkeys, guinea-fowl, pigeons, silkworms, and bees. In the south- 

34 



THE FARM ANIMALS 35 

western part of the United States there are a few ostrich farms. 
Occasionally a farmer will raise only pets for sale, but pets are not 
usually classed as farm animals. 




Fig. 15. — Coach liui.se. Auiuials may be developed for refinement and beauty 

as well as service. 

Animals are necessary. — Live-stock is just as essential a part 
of the farm as are plants and crops. Animal food products, such as 
meat, milk, butter, and eggs, are equally in demand on the market 
with plant food products. It would not be possible to farm large 
areas if there were not animals to bear the burden of the work. 



36 AGRICULTURE 

The savage used the skins of wild beasts for clothing before he 
learned how to weave, and to-day many of our finest and warmest 
clothes are made from animal products. Man has always enjoyed 
the companionship of animals, and some are raised only for this 
purpose. 

Animals are reared for food. — If the human race had depended 
on hunting for its meat food, we should long ago have destroyed all 




Fig. 16. — Jersey cow. Many geueiutiuuo of domestication and care have been 
required to bring farm animals to their present form and usefulness. 

our wild animals and the demand would not have been satisfied. 
Large areas of land, great stores of crops, and the time of countless 
numbers of men are required merely to raise the live-stock neces- 
sary for food purposes. Nearly every farm keeps some stock, but 
to meet the demands great cattle ranches have been established on 
the western plains. Steers, sheep, hogs, and poultry contribute 
to the meat supply. Equally important, also, are their products, 
milk, cheese, butter, and eggs. 



THE FARM ANIMALS 



37 



Many farm crops cannot be eaten in their raw state by man. 
When fed to the farm stock they are changed into a form in which 
he can use them. About 80 per cent of all the corn raised in the 
United States is fed to domestic animals. Hay and much of the 
grain and root-crops are made of use to man only by feeding them 
to animals. 

For work. — The Indian in America did not make great progress 
because he had no beasts to do his work. It was not until animals 




Fig. 17. — Animals are reared for pleasure and companionsliip. 



were enslaved and trained to bear the heavy part of the work, that 
farming was possible on a large scale. The slow-going but steady 
oxen lightened the labor and made it possible to farm larger areas. 
To-day horse-power is used ever3rwhere on our farms, and horses 
are a necessary part of the farm equipment. One horse, well 
directed, can do as much work as ten men. 

For clothing. — The fur-bearing animals of North America 
meant as much to its early inhabitants as do all the flocks and herds 
of the present day to us. It was the chase and barter for their 
pelts that drew many of the earliest European adventurers across 
the ocean. We are still dependent on wild animals for some of 
our finer pieces of clothing. The fur of the beaver, buffalo, seal, 
opossum, raccoon, skunk, red fox, silver fox, rabbit, muskrat, 



38 AGRICULTURE 

mink, marten, otter, ermine, })ear, and others, secured by hunting 
and trapping, brings high prices in cities for clothing purposes. 

Woolen goods are made from the fleece of our common sheep. 
The sheep industry,* or the raising of fleeces for manufacture into 
clothing, is now one of the great farm industries in America. Mo- 
hair is made from the hair of the Angora goat. 

There is another very small domesticated animal that helps to 
supply our clothing ; that is the busy little silkworm. Its original 
home was probably in China, and China has long enjoyed a wide 
reputation for its fine silks. The early colonists in Virginia, South 
Carolina, and Georgia engaged in this industry to a limited extent, 
and since then a small amount of silk has been raised in this coun- 
try. At the present time the United States Department of Agri- 
culture is trying to encourage again the raising of silkworms Trr^ 
the southern states. 

For soil fertility. — An old Flemish proverb reads : 

"No grass, no cattle, 
"No cattle, no manure, 
"No manure, no crop." 

This ancient proverb is just as true to-day, — there must be 
grass to feed the cattle, cattle to produce manure, manure to enrich 
the land so that more grass can grow. Without some kind of 
fertilizer crops cannot long be grown successfully. The farmer has 
learned by experience that if he raises crops year after year without 
enriching his land, the soil will lose its crop-producing power, and 
he will secure small returns. 

One of the i)est means of ke(^ping tlie land fertile is by spreading 
on it animal manure. Such manure is in a condition to be 
quickly used by growing plants. The farm boy knows that his 
father is careful to save all the ])arn3^ard numure for the land, and 
that he spreads it where he wants to raise a large crop. Farm 
animals are reared for tlie sake of our soils as well as for other 
purposes. 



THE FARM ANIMALS 



39 




Fig. 18. — Sheep may be pastured where the plow cannot go. 



40 AGRICULTURE 

Relation of animals to kind of farming. — The farmer who keeps 
live-stock organizes his work very differently from one who raises 
fruit or vegetables. He raises crops to be fed to stock, and he sells 
the stock or its products instead of the bulky crops. He must have 
large storage barns to hold his winter's feed. He markets his 
products at different times and in different ways from the crop- 
farmer. 

The live-stock farmer can use land that otherwise might be 
wasted, that is not. suited for growing crops, — land next to streams, 
or that is partially covered with trees, or that is too hilly or too 
stony to cultivate. Sheep may be pastured where the plow cannot 
go. Farm animals also use parts of plants that otherwise would 
be wasted, as straw, corn-stalks, and grasses. 

A better rotation of crops, and consequently a better use of tiie^ 
land, can be had when animals are reared. More land can be kept 
in grass and clover, so that less plowing will need to be done ; and the 
fertility of the land will be maintained by the return of the manure. 

When live-stock is reared, the farm help is busy all the year ; 
this is a mark of good farming. The exclusive wheat-farmer sows 
his grain in April and May (in the spring-wheat regions), harvests 
and threshes it in July and August, and has little work for himself, 
his men, or his teams the remainder of the year from September to 
April. The stock-farmer raises crops in summer, when the cattle 
are at pasture, and in the winter is busy caring for his animals 
when they must be fed indoors. 

Problem 30. Is there any hunting in your locality ? What do the 
hunters find ? What kinds of game are used for food ? Are any of them 
used only for clothing purposes ? 

Problem 81. How many kinds of animals are raised on your farm 
for food? How many for work? For clothing? For companions? 

Problem 82. Do any of the farmers in your locality keep sheep ? 
Where do they pasture them ? What becomes of their products ? 

Problem 88. When does your father haul out his stable manure ? 
Where does he spread it ? Why ? If he does not keep stock, does he buy 
any farm^manure ? Does it pay him to buy it ? 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE farmer's aids 

The American Indian lived such a simple, free life, living by 
hunting and a little planting, that he had need for few outside helps 
in his domestic life. The farmers in colonial days had their school 
and their church, but did not feel the want of many other aids. 
The farm was often the home, the store, and the factory, all in 
one. Farming meant little more than to clear the land and to raise 
enough to live on, with some surplus for near-at-hand barter. 
There was no world market to be reached. 

Need of aids. — With the growth of towns and cities, with a 
division of labor, and the necessity for providing food-stuffs for 
the new nation, a need arose for special aids in farming and mar- 
keting. The complex hfe of to-day makes it necessary for the 
farmer to have many kinds of aids. 

Kinds of aids. — As many different aids must be provided as there 
are special needs to be met. There must be schools and churches 
to encourage education and religion ; good roads and railroads to 
enable the farmer to place his products on the markets ; telephone 
and mail service ; opportunities for comparing the farmer's prod- 
ucts and skill with others, as in country fairs and exhibitions; 
and means by which the farmer can cooperate with his neighbors 
to do work in which all should have a part, and to bring them to- 
gether for pleasure and visitation, as in farmers' clubs and the 
grange and the creamery. 

The country school. — The school is one of the foremost aids 
that the farmer has, for his children must be well trained and be 

41 



42 AGRICULTURE 

able to think and to plan clearly and carefully if they are to make 
farm life and the farming industry as attractive and useful as it is 
possible to make them, and so that they will equal the best in city 
life. The schools help to develop the mind ; and a trained mind 
that can meet problems and solve them is necessary if one is to be 
a good business man, a lawyer, an inventor, a mechanic, or a 
farmer. 

Country schools teach boys and girls who live on the farm. 
They are now beginning to teach about the farming industry as 
well as other subjects. We are to study agriculture in our schools 
as well as history and arithmetic and grammar and geography. 
We need them all if the people are to be well educated. And we 
shall study advanced agriculture in the high-schools as well as 
advanced arithmetic and history and language. When we reae^ 
the college of agriculture, we shall receive special training in the 
affairs of agriculture so that we shall be expert in our work. Men 
have studied agriculture, just as they have studied law and medi- 
cine, and there is a great deal that may now be learned about 
farming by a s^^stematic study of the subject. The farmer will 
find the school of increasing value to him in the future. If he 
once lived without special education, he can no longer expect to 
do so. 

The country church. — Many of the early settlers came to Amer- 
ica in order that they might '^ worship God according to the dic- 
tates of their own conscience " and " rear their children in the fear 
of the Lord." The church had an important part in the coloniza- 
tion of America, and, in some neighborhoods at least, the family 
that never attended church was the great exception. It established 
itself on the very frontier, a pioneer that amid great trials pointed 
the way to high standards of living and hopefulness. It has al- 
ways been an important agency in farming regions, and to-day is 
found in every community. Good farming is only part of good 
living, and the church stands to inspire men to their highest charac- 
ter and usefulness. 



THE FARMER'S AIDS 



43 



Transportation. — The farmer is, of all men, most dependent on 
means of transportation, as the products that he raises must be 
placed on a distant market, and usually cannot be sold near home 
in any large quantity. In the early days in America, long-distance 
transportation was effected by means of water-routes and stage- 
Hnes ; the turnpikes were few, the common roads almost impassable. 




mf^"? 







Fig. 19. — Water transportation of truck crops. 

and stage-coach travel was costly and very difficult. With the 
coming of the railroad in 1830, new opportunities opened before the 
farmer, for then he could readily dispose of his surplus products. 
To-day the country is covered by a net-work of railroads and elec- 
tric trolle}^ lines, and there are great transcontinental railroads that 
speed the farmer's products from one end of the country to the 
other and place them on the market at just the right time. All 
this has made great changes in farming. Good means of reaching the 
markets are nearly as important as the abihty to raise good products. 



44 AGRICULTURE 

But railroads, trolley linos, and water-routes cannot reach all 
farmers, so that good wagon-roads must be provided. The 
farmer uses the wagon-road every day, going to and from the 
village, railroad station, or boat landing. If the roads are poor, 
he can haul less, it will take more time, cost more for teams and 
wagons, and altogether be expensive transportation. With good, 
well-kept roads, he can do his hauling quickly and easily. He will 
travel more, see his neighbors more often, and go to the village more 
frequently to get what he needs. 

The telephone. — About twenty-five years ago the telephone was 
a curiosity and a plaj^hing. To-day it is an indispensable means of 
communication. It keeps the farmer and his wife in close touch 
with their neighbors, so that they are no longer isolated, and they 
can become acquainted quickly with whatever is taking place iri- 
the community. The doctor can be reached without the long drive 
to the village ; farm hands can be called together ; if the thresher 
is to come to-morrow, the farmer in a few minutes can arrange with 
his neighbors for exchange of help, instead of traveling about all 
day to do so. The telephone can be used in all sorts of weather, at 
all times of the year, and at all hours of the day. 

In some places the weather reports are sent to all farmers on 
the line at noon, and at six o'clock a general report on the 
conditions of the market. The farmer can then more readily 
plan his work for the next day, as he knows what weather to 
expect ; and if he has a few tons of hay or a load of hogs to sell, 
he will know when to reach the market to get the best price. 

Mail service. — Until within a few years, persons living in the 
country have had poor mail or postal service. To secure his mail, 
the farmer had to drive to the village, often miles away, frequently 
over poor roads, or had to depend on the slow stage route. He 
had either to neglect his work on the farm, and go to the village 
whether it was convenient or not, in all sorts of weather, or else go 
without his mail. Often he did the latter, and as a result was 
out of touch with affairs outside of his community. He wrote 



THE FARMER'S AIDS 45 

few letters, for it was as hard to send them as to go after the 
replies. 

In 1896 the United States government instituted rural free 
delivery of mails, and to-day most farming districts have this 
service. In 1908 there were about 40,000 carriers who reached 
16,000,000 persons on farms, and the government spent 
$34,900,000 to render this aid to farmers. Now the farmer has 
his mail daily, may send and receive letters regularly, has his daily 
paper, and is in closer touch with the affairs of the nation. He is 
now in need of an extension of mail service by means of a post 
carrying large parcels as well as letters and journals. 

The country fair. — The country fair is intended to be the place 
where the farmer may bring his best stock and crops for compari- 
son with his neighbor's, where he may learn how to raise better 
products, see the latest farm machinery, and meet his neighbors 
for visitation and sociability. The fair was established as the 
farmer's holiday, when he should meet other farmers and show the 
results of his own work, and listen to addresses by leading men. 
To-day the fair in many country districts is not much help to the 
farmer, because a multitude of amusements and so-called attrac- 
tions have crowded oat his own part ; but some day, when there 
are more grown-up boj^s and girls who know what a good country 
fair should be, it will be changed back to its original purpose and 
be a real help to the farmer. 

It is interesting to know that as early as 1796 George Washing- 
ton desired to see agricultural fairs held. A fair was held in 
Washington, D. C, on October 17-19, 1804, and was repeated 
in the following April, when premiums were offered. Soon after, 
other fairs and " cattle shows " were held throughout New Eng- 
land and in the middle states, and this kind of farmers' exhibition 
and social gathering became a regular occurrence. 

Farmers' clubs. — The farmers' club, the agricultural society, 
and the grange represent still another kind of aid for the farmer. 
They offer him another opportunity to meet with his neighbors 



46 AGRICULTURE 

and talk over farm and neighborhood questions. Sometimes the 
clubs establish telephone systems and fire insurance companies; 
sometimes they undertake to breed better animals or better crops 
in the locahty, and to secure better machines; sometimes they 
help the farmer to buy his seeds and fertilizers, and to sell his 
surplus products. 

The earhest farmers' clubs were formed about the same time 
that fairs were first held. Now there are many thousands of them. 
Nearly every farming community has at least one. When persons 
work together 'they are hkely to secure better results than when 
they work alone. 

The creamery. — Agricultural fairs and farmers' clubs are 
means by which farmers are able to work together and help one 
another. The creamery and the cheese factory are other impoic-^ 
tant means of cooperation. They are useful in several ways. 
Farmers can send all of their milk there, and not have to manu- 
facture it themselves ; it is manufactured in large quantities, and 
consequently at less expense ; the product is uniform, or just 
alike, from day to day and will sell better; it can be shipped in 
large quantities, and thus at less expense for transportation. 
Farmers can have their milk tested, so that they may know which 
cows are good and which are poor, and get rid of the poor ones. 
The creamery should teach cleanliness in handling milk, prompt- 
ness, good business methods, and the principles of cooperation. 

Public agricultural institutions. — The people maintain a De- 
partment of Agriculture at Washington as a part of the govern- 
ment of the United States (the chief of which is Secretary of 
Agriculture in the President's Cabinet), and a college of agricul- 
ture and experiment station in each state; and in most of the 
states there is a department of agriculture. In Canada, there is a 
Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion, and departments of 
agriculture in the provinces. There is a Dominion experiment 
station at Ottawa, with branch stations in the provinces. There 
are also several provincial schools and colleges of agriculture. 



THE FARMER'S AIDS 47 

Problem 35. Are there any boys and girls in your school whose fathers 
or mothers went to the same school, or to the old one before this was built ? 
Name all the leading and successful men who have studied in your school, 
so far as you can. Did their schooling seem to have anything to do with 
their success ? 

Problem 36. How long has there been a church in your locality ? 
Ask j^our father whether he can remember any time when there was not. 
In what ways is the church useful in the locality ? 

Problem 37. How many different kinds of transportation does your 
father use in carr3dng his products from the farm to the market ? Which 
kind costs the most? Ask your father to tell you how his grandfather 
marketed his crops. 

Problem 38. Suppose your father lives eight miles from the station 
on a good state road, and John's father lives eight miles from the station 
on a poor road. If both men have to go to the station three times a week 
and it takes John's father, on the average, forty-five minutes longer each 
wa}^ to travel through the poor road, how much more vaW it cost him in 
six months (24 weeks), if the time of each man is worth 50 cents an hour ? 
If John's father can carry only three-fourths as hea\^ a load each trip on 
the poor road, how many extra loads must he take to transport the same 
amount of stuff to the station as your father takes in six months ? How 
much more will it cost him to do the same amount of work as your father 
will do in six months ? 

Problem 39. If in buying his farm on the poor road, John's father 
saved SI 000, and put it in the bank at 5 per cent interest, did he make 
a good investment ? How much money in the bank at 5 per cent interest 
would return the amount that your father saves each year in hauling? 
Your father's farm is worth at least that much more to him than the farm 
on the poor road. 

Problem Jf.0. How many families on your route have their mail de- 
livered at the gate? If the first ten of them had driven to the village 
once a week simply for the mail, how many miles, all together, would they 
have traveled that week ? How far did the carrier have to drive in mak- 
ing one delivery to the first ten? 

Problem J^l . Write a brief essay on the things you saw at the last 
country fair that would help the farmer in some way. 

Problem ^2. Explain what farmers' clubs or business organizations 
are in the locality, and what they do for the farmers. 

Problem 43. Give the name and post office of the college of agri- 
culture and experiment station in your state or province. Is there a de- 
partment of agriculture? 



PART II 

THE SOIL 



CTTAPTF.II rX 



WHAT 'I'ni': son. is 



'J'mo very llim, soil covcriut!; of iJic c.'iflli iti which pl.-uils ^row 
is (;jill(;(l ih(! soil. 'l'h(; fannci (ills (he soil in onhT* thai/ plarits 
iiijiy injik<' hcllci ^;r()wMi und pjivc hcllcT {K^count of ih(!rns('lv(^s. 
11 is fn;irv('!oiis lh;(,l the soil ciui piodiici' so in;iny diffcnint kinds 
of pJMiils. 

The nature of soil. II we l.'ikc ji. luindful of ^ood ^.-irdcn soil, 
we find thut it is jncllow, d;ii-k-c<)Joi'('d, nrid moist. If we f)hi(;o 
it in ;i dish jind licjit, it, IIk; moisture; will be driven off und it will 
dr3^ If we hcnt it lorifz; ('nouj!;li, it will smoke a little, jmd we v/dn 
av.i". and smell thid, sorn(!tfiin^ in it is hnrnin^'. This must he or- 
j!;ani(', or vegetable or anirrnil rnjilt(;r, iiH rniruirjil matter will not 
burn. We shall not S(;o much el»an)i!;e in size by the !)urni!i^, 
which shows that there is littler organic; maU(T and tlmt most of the 
soil is mirna-aJ. It is tlie organic; mattc^i", or " hurmis," as it is 
call(!(l, that giv(;s the soil its dark, '' rich " appejirancc;, that makes 
it looser and rrudlow, and that holds much of the moistun^ 

If now we hold some of this mineral matter between oui thumb 
and first finder, and ^rind it, we sh.'ill discover th.'it it contains litlJci 
f)articl(;s of sharp ^;rit, w hich jire sometimes li:ird enoup;h to scrat(;h 
vvvn ^Inss if rublx^d against it. If tlu; soil is coarse and sandy, wc 
can re.'idily see these hard min(;ral i)arti(!l(!S ; if it is a fine loam or 
(^lay, I he f)arti(;les can be s(;(;n und(T the microscjofx;. 

What the soil comes from. — It is evident that in sorrn; way min- 
eral has been powden^d to form the soil; and since the; minerals 
com(^ from rocks, it is th(; rocks that have bc^'ti ground up. liy 

61 



52 AGRICULTURE 

pounding up a rock we can make the fine, gritty, or mineral soil. 
When wo grind the ax, we are adding particles to the soil, the 
particles being in part from the ax and in part from the grind- 
stone, and they are drained off in the muddy water. The soil 
specialist, or geologist, can identify many of the soil particles as 
having come from certain rocks, as from sandstone, granite, lime- 
stone, or others. The particles are of different sizes. This is 
partly because they have come from different kinds of rocks, some 
of which are not usually broken up so fine as others. 

Perhaps the bed-rock of the earth comes out on the surface of the 
ground in a nearby field ; or there may be a deep cut somewhere 
near which shows the layer of rock under the soil ; or maybe a 
well has been drilled on the farm and there was difficulty in get- 
ting through the bed-rock. Everywhere, we find, thesoil rests^ 
on the rock. In some places the rock shows on the surface, and in 
others it may be several hundred feet below the surface. 

We read in our geography that at one time the earth was prob- 
ably a white-hot sphere, like the sun, and that in time the outer 
part cooled and formed a crust or case of solid rock. It is the sur- 
face of this rock that has been changed into soil. If we could sweep 
off all the soil, we should come again to the rock-crust. 

It we examme the soil in the woodlot, we shall find it light and 
loose, and to contain more or less decayed leaves, twigs, roots, and 
trunks of trees. In the garden, we may find parts of plants decay- 
ing in the same way and becoming part of the soil. It is evident, 
therefore, that the organic matter, or humus, comes from the de- 
caying vegetable matter that falls on the soil, grows in it, or is 
plowed into it. Some of it is also formed by the death and decay 
of worms, insects, and animals, which are organic matter, and which 
must be returned to the soil when they die. 

How the soil is made. — We have seen in the woodlot and in the 
garden how the organic matter gradually decays to form the soil. 
But how has the hard rock-crust all over this globe been changed 
into fine soil? There must have been some powerful means, or 



WHAT THE SOIL IS 



53 



agents. A close study of different kinds of soils will show that they 
have been formed by several means, chief of which are the sun, the 




Fig. 20. — Year by year the forest adds its leaves, twigs, and decaying trunks to 

the soil. 

air, water, plants, and animals. We shall study the work of each 
of these separately. 



54 AGRICULTURE 

The work of the sun. — Most rocks are made up of fragments or 
particles of several sizes and kinds. As the sun beats down on a 
rock during the day, the rock is heated and expands. As the frag- 
ments are of different kinds, they do not all expand equally or in 
the same directions. Towards evening the air cools rapidly, and 
the rock also cools. Some of the fragments cool more rapidly 
than others, and we have uneven contraction. This uneven ex- 
pansion and contraction, day after day, tends to make cracks, or 
crevices, in the rock, and even to chip off pieces. This kind of soil 
formation is most common in dry climates oi where there are great 
extremes of heat and cold, as in New England and particularly in 
the mountain ranges in the west. 

The work of air. — ■ The air sifts into the cracks in the rocks and 
sets up a kind of rock-decay, resulting in the crumbling of the rockr 
In arid regions, or wherever the ground is not covered with grass, 
the wind lifts the particles of soil and hurls them against the rocks 
on hillsides, gradually wearing away the rock aad undermining it so 
that it falls over. This is called disintegiation. The rounded and 
dome-Hke shapes in the hills and mountains in the western desert 
regions are largely wind-formed. 

The work of water. — The water from rains also finds its way into 
the little crevices in the rocks, where it may freeze and force the 
cracks to open widei. When ice forms in large cracks on hillsides, 
it may break large pieces from the rocks and send them tumbling 
down below. 

The water also dissolves the rock, just as it dissolves sugar, but 
not so lapidly. The water nearly always contains a substance 
called carbonic acid, and this greatly increases its power to dissolve 
rocks. Very few rocks can resist the effect of such water. There is 
" no rock so hard, but a little wave may beat admission in a thou- 
sand years." 

After a rain the creeks and rivers are always muddy because of 
the soil that the water has carried down from the hillsides. In the 
streams we may see pebbles that are being carried along on the 



WHAT THE SOIL IS 



55 



bottom, knocking against one another and rubbing off all the sharp 
edges so that they become smooth and round. The small particles 
that are chipped off are carried by the stream, together with the 
particles of soil from the hillsides, to the mouth, or where the stream 





"^ 


Mgv-^' .-'^ 






I 


■;*i?sfiaiifc-r jT-.'i ,«.5 ^ 








iik-^ T 


.■' 




>>>m.^-'..- -■■- 


^^^^-<^ 


^ 


g^^^_ ^ 


■rsil'm'7v ' _>9^sP'^!I^^BiHi^jiH 




"".;«•-- 


'^^■^^^H 


i^^^^S 


li^^t^fi^.^ 


^ 


^^B 


^Sl 




*^ 


SL 


*^ 


§ 


k.: _ risitr 






-*.~»* 


^ ■ "• 1^ 







Fig. 21. — The bed of a stream at low water. Notice the pebbles that have been 
worn smooth by being rolled about. Tiny bits have been ground off to form soil. 



overflows its banks, and there, where the water is quiet, are depos- 
ited as fine, soft mud. Perhaps we have seen this soft mud in the 
lowland where the creek has overflowed its banks during the 
spring fieshet. Part of it is new soil ground from the rocks. In 
this way the deltas of rivulets, brooks, and rivers are formed. 

The work of ice. — We have said that when ice forms in crevices 
in the rocks it forces them apart and may break off pieces. But 
ice has played a much greater part in the making of soils. 



56 



AGRICULTURE 



At one time the north temperate lands were covered by a great 
glacier that reached across the continent to the Rocky Mountains. 
At certain points it extended as far south as Pennsylvania, and in 
some places was a thousand feet or more in height. As this vast 
ice sheet moved gradually southward, it ground the rocks into 
powder, wore away the sides of mountains, and rounded off the 
hill-tops. It carried much of the soil and rock with it, and as it 
gradually melted, deposited its load by the way. With the melting 
of so much ice, great streams were formed, which carried away 

much of the finer 
soil and left the 
coarser and heavier 
sand, gravel, and 
pebbles as sand^ 
banks or gravel 
banks. Perhaps near 
your home there are 
such banks, left by 
the glacier, remind- 
ing you that it once 
occupied your region 
or farm. 

There is now a 
glacier in Greenland 
covering an area more than ten times as great as that of New York 
State. It is slowly moving outward in all directions. From the 
ends that reach out into the sea icebergs break off, which, before 
they have melted, may float as far south as the path of ocean 
steamers. Similar glaciers are moving sea-ward from Alaska; 
and smaller ones are on many mountains. 

The work of plants. — The roots of growing plants creep into 
the crevices in the rocks, and there increase in size, force the cracks 
wider open, and break off fragments. Decaying plants and roots 
hold the moisture of rains, and so form an acid whhic slowly 
dissolves the rock that it touches. 




Fig. 22. 



- A part of the edge of the Greenland glacier, 
showing its load of soil and rock. 



WHAT THE SOIL IS 



57 



The work of animals. — All classes of burrowing animals, 
as the gopher, mole, woodchuck, and prairie dog, and of in- 
sects, as the ant, and the earthworms, help to form soil. They 




Fig. 23, — Roots follow crevices in rocks and help to make them larger. Then frost 
and water enter and split the rock. 



keep it porous so that the rains can enter, and they bring 
the deeper soil to the surface. Those that eat the soil, as 
earthworms and certain insects, change its form. They are so 



58 AGRICULTURE 

numerous in some soils that the part they take in soil-making 
is very important. 

What soil is. — It is apparent, then, that soil is crumbled or 
ground up rock, containing particles of many shapes and sizes and 
materials, to which has been added decaying animal and vegetable 
material, which we call organic matter, or humus. 

Problem I^If.. Ask your teacher to take the class for an excursion some 
afternoon, to study soil formation. Go to a creek or river-bank and 
describe the soil-making that is taking place there. Find a low place 
where the stream has overflowed, and note the fine, soft mud, which is still 
gritty. Then see whether you can find any crumbling rocks in the field 
or the fence row, or in a cut in a hillside. Chip off a piece of rock that 
has been exposed to the sun, and note the change that has taken place on 
the outside as compared with the inside. Ask your teacher to tell you 
what she knows about the formation of the hills, if there are any in tRe^ 
locality. See whether you can find a sand-bank or gravel-bank, and 
notice how it is formed. 

Problem Jf.5. Walk over your father's farm, or some other in your 
locality, and note carefully how many kinds of soil there are. Write an 
essay on what soil conditions you discover on the farm. 

Problem 4.6. What difference is there between the soil in the woodlot 
and that in the hay field, in color, weight, texture, or feeling, and smell ? 
Why is there this difference ? Which contains the most moisture ? Why ? 

Problem ^7. Grind up three different kinds of rock as fine as you can 
and bring the fragments and powder to school for comparison. Is there 
any difference in the soil from the different kinds of rock ? Which kinds 
of rock grind most easily ? Which are hardest ? Put all of the soil made 
by the pupils into a pot and set in it a growing plant. Keep it well 
watered and in a bright place. Will the plant grow in the soil you made ? 
What is the chief difference between this soil and that in the field ? 

Problem 48. Heat some garden soil and note the changes. Heat some 
soil from the woodlot and note the changes. Which burns most ? Why ? 
Wliich changes most in size and color ? Why ? What has the heat done 
to each soil? 

Problem 49. Why are some stones and pebbles rounded ? 



CHAPTER X 

THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL 

We have learned that there may be many different kinds of 
soils on the farm — one kind in the garden, one in the orchard, one 
on the hillsides, one in the lowland by the creek where the cows 
go to water, one in the woodlot ; and perhaps on a neighbor's farm 
to the south there is a swamp with a still different kind of soil. 




Fig. 24. — Hills formed by sand drifted by the wind. 

There is one soil of New England, one of the prairies, one of the 
Mississippi bottoms, one of the great plains, and of the arid 
regions. They are different from one another, partly because 
different kinds of rock and vegetable materials have entered into 
their making, and partly because the soil particles are of different 
sizes and kinds. These soils have names, just as different kinds of 

59 



60 AGRICULTURE 

plants have names. The names help to describe them. Some of 
the names are peat, muck, clay, loam, sand, and gravel. 

Peat. — If more than one half the soil is organic matter, or 
hmnus, it is called a peat soil. Peat is formed chiefly in swamps, 
where the water is quiet, and the mud which it carries settles to 
the bottom and furnishes a foothold for water plants. When these 
plants die, they are submerged in the water and others take their 
places. Year after year this process goes on, and there is built 
up a peat bog. Such peat bogs are frequently found in Canada, 
northern United States, Ireland, Scotland, and Norway. Peat 
may be dried and used for burning in place of wood or coal ; all 
three of fuels these are organic matter in different forms. 

Muck. — A soil that contains one fourth to one half organic 
matter is called muck. It is black and loose and holds a greats 
deal of moisture. When a clay soil is plowed in the spring, the 
black muck can sometimes be seen in strips, or belts, along the 
hollows. 

Clay. — A soil made up of such fine parts that one particle 
cannot be distinguished from another without the aid of a micro- 
scope, is called a clay soil. In the field it is stiff and sticky, and 
difficult to manage either when it is very wet or when it is very dry. 
It makes good mud pies, but they crack to pieces when they are 
dry. That is the way the soil behaves also in the field ; we have 
all seen the cracked surface of the clay soil in the dry midsummer. 
A clay soil is frequently said to be cold because it holds water, that 
is, does not allow the water to pass through it readily. It is also 
said to be heavy, because it is closely compacted and sticky. 

Loam. — A soil composed partly of clay and partly of sand is 
called a loam. If there is much clay in it, it is a clay loam ; if 
much sand, it is a sandy loam. When clay and sand are in about 
equal proportions it is a true loam. This is the most common and 
most desirable type of general farm soil. It is easy to work, 
allows moisture to pass through sufficiently fast, and makes a good 
home for the plant roots. 



THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL 



61 



Sand. — A soil so coarse that it is gritty is" a sand soil. Its 
particles are much larger than those of the clay soil. They can 
readily be distinguished 
from one another. The 
soil is loose, open, and 
porous, allowing the water 
to drain out of it easily. 
Sand is therefore frequently 
spoken of as a '^warm'' and 
a 'Might" soil. We find 
sand soils along stream 
beds, along the shores of 
lakes, and in other places 
where the glacier deposited 
part of its burden. 

Gravel. — Some soils are 
nearly all gravel, or pebbles, 
and are called gravel soils. 
Others contain many large 
pebbles and small stones. 
A clay soil containing much 
stone is called a stony clay. 

Weight of soil. — These 
several kinds of soils have 
different weights, which 
vary according to their 

denseness and solidity, or their openness and looseness. It has 
been determined that a cubic foot of sand weighs 100 to 110 pounds ; 
of loam, 85 to 95 pounds ; of clay, 65 to 80 pounds ; of muck or 
peat, 45 to 70 pounds. Sand weighs more than clay, yet the farmer 
calls the clay a heavy soil, because it is fine and stiff and does 
not work easil}^, and the sand a light soil, because it is easily 
worked. 

The physical composition of soil. — We now know that the soil 




Fig. 25. — Where the current is checked the 
stream deposits its burden. 



62 



AGRICULTURE 




is made up of fine particles of rock, or mineral matter, of vegetable 
matter, water, plant and animal life. It contains also air, and 
another kind of plant life which perhaps we do not know about, 
because we cannot see it, but which is very important, — a low 
form of plant life called bacteria. The bacteria plants are so 
minute that they can be seen only under a strong microscope. Yet 
the soil could not produce plants if they were not there, changing it 

so as to make it useful 
for plant food. Some 
kinds of bacteria must 
liave air in order to live, 
a.nd so there must be 
air in the soil. We 
shall study in lateF 
chapters about these 
various materials that 
make up the soil. 

Importance of the 
physical composition of 
soil. — In order to 
grow, plants, like animals, must have food, air, water, and a suit- 
able home. These are what the soil and the atmosphere supply. 
The suitable home must allow the roots to expand, supply the food 
which they are seeking, help to regulate the moisture and heat con- 
ditions for the plant, and give good support to that part of the plant 
that grows above ground. A considerable part of the plant grows 
below ground to support and nourish the part above ground. 
When we have tried to pull a pigweed out of a neglected part of the 
garden, we have discovered that the soil gives strong support, and 
that the root-anchor holds fast. The farmer recognizes the 
importance of the physical conditions, and plows and fits his land 
carefully. 

Soil as a source of plant-food. — The plant needs a variety of 
food, just as the hungry boy does. Many different substances, or 



^<%^»g^ 



Fig. 26. 



Soil that contains much humus and 
vegetable matter. 



THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL 63 

elements/ are required for its growth. The tissues are formed 
from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and small amounts 
(less than 5 per cent in all) of mineral elements. The carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are secured from the air and from 
the water in the soil. The mineral elements, potassium, calcium, 
sodium, magnesium, iron, sulfur, chlorine, and phosphorus, are 
secured from the soil. They are used, only in small amounts. 

These mineral elements exist in the soil as compounds,^ or 
chemical mixtures. In order to be usable by plants, they must 
be dissolved in the soil water. Through the roots they can 
then pass into the plant, where they are prepared by a process 
of digestion for its special needs. 

Substances called silicon, aluminum, and oxygen make up 80 
to 90 per cent of the mineral matter in soil. As the plant gets its 
oxygen from the air and water, and seems to require veiy little or 
no silicon, the greater part of the mineral matter in soil is of no 
use except to give the plant support. 

Relation of soil to farming in the locality. — The kind of soil 
determines to a considerable extent the type of farming that shall 
be done in the localit}^ Some crops can be raised on a great vari- 
ety of soils, while other are not so easy to please. Timothy hay will 
grow successtully on clay, clay loam, loam, and even fine, sandy 
soils ; apples, pears, and grapes prefer heavy loam or clay soils, and 
peaches prefer sandy soils. 

When peat and muck soils are well drained, they are excellent for 
growing onions, celery, cabbage, and peppermint. Extensive 
growers of these crops usually choose such land if they can secure 
it. Where there are belts or stretches of muck land, the farmers 
grow only one or two crops ; here, the soil determines the kind of 
farming. Clay soils will produce good crops of hay, wheat, oats, 
beets, cabbage, and turnips. They are too cold and wet for 

1 An element is a substance composed of only one kind of matter. Carbon, nitro- 
gen, and potassium are elements. A compound is a substance composed of two or 
more kinds of matter, or elements. Sodium nitrate and copper sulfate are compounds. 



64 



AGRICULTURE 



corn and too stiff to allow potatoes to grow freely. Loam soils 
produce hay, wheat, and oats nearlj^ as well as clay; they produce 
corn and clover better than clay. Potatoes, tomatoes, beans, and 
peas do very well on loams. Sandy soils produce poor crops of 




Fig. 27. 



Two soils. On the left, clay that has dried 'and cracked ; on the right, 
a loose loam. 



grain and grass, but because they are warm are well adapted for 
growing berries and early vegetables, as peas, radishes, and lettuce. 
The intelligent farmer will adapt his crops to his soils. 

Problem 50. Ask your teacher to take the class for another soil ex- 
cursion. Some one take a spade. In the meadow, dig down about 
eighteen inches into the soil. Is there any difference between the surface 
soil and the under or subsoil ? Which is looser ? Which is darker col- 
ored ? Which has most organic matter ? Why ? How deep down is the 
subsoil ? How many factors have helped to make the surface soil different 
from the subsoil? Take a bottle or glass full of both surface soil and 
subsoil for study and exhibit in the schoolroom. Put a label on the glass 
to show where and when the soil was secured. 

Make a similar study of the soils in the woodlot and down by the creek 
bed, if there are woods and creeks in your neighborhood. 

Problem 51. Make for the schoolroom an exhibit or museum contain- 
ing muck, clay, loam, sand, gravel, and stony clay soils. Mark the bottles 



THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL 65 

to show where each was found. Get the same amount of each kind of soil, 
weigh the samples, and mark the weights on the bottles. After a few 
weeks, note which have changed most. Weigh them again. Explain the 
changes. 

Problem 52. What kind of soil is most common in your locality ? 
Do all of the farmers grow, in general, the same kinds of crops ? Are there 
any special crops ? Are the special crops grown on certain kinds of soil ? 
Does your father try to adapt his crops to the different kinds of soil on his 
farm, if there are differences? 

Problem 53. Write a short essay about the part that the soil plays in 
the growing of plants — what it does for the plant, and how. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE SOIL WATER 

If a soil is perfectly dry — or as dry as you ever saw it — it 
cannot raise plants. When we add water, we see that plants will 
grow, or they will revive if they are wilted. We know that in 
some way the soil water is useful to plants. 

Relation of water to plant growth. — A living plant contains a 
large proportion of water — generally more than 75 per cent of 
its weight. Practically all this water is taken from the soil by 
the roots. All growing plants need water, first, because they can 
take their food from the soil only in liquid form, and second, in 
order to keep fresh — that is, to keep their cells expanded or tur- 
gid, the opposite of wilted. The soil moisture is the immediate 
source of the food-supply of plants ; it is a plant-food itself, and it 
carries other plant-foods. Much water must pass up through 
the plant in order to carry the food to the leaves.^ From there 
the surplus water is then evaporated or '^ transpired " into the air. 

How the water gets into the soil. — If we go out immediately 
after a shower, we find little muddy streams running by the road- 
side ; out in the corn-field, where the land slopes down toward the 
hollow, some of the soil has been washed away, and the heavy 
rain has cut deep channels toward the bottom of the slope. The 
little rills rise rapidly and rush away, loaded with fine soil from the 
plowed fields. 

^ It has been found that crops take 300 to 500 tons of water from the soil to 
make one ton of dry plant substance, which includes all of the plant except the 
water. Timothy hay takes 300 tons of water to make one ton of dry hay. Oats 
require 500 tons, barley 464 tons, clover 576 tons, potatoes 385 tons, to produce 
one ton of dry matter. 

66 



THE SOIL WATER 



67 



But not all of the water robs the land and retreats with haste to 
the nearest creek or pond. Much of it does not stop when it 




Fig. 28. — Disastrous soil erosion, or washing, in an orchard. 



68 AGRICULTURE 

strikes the surface of the ground, but sinks into the soil through the 
cracks, crevices, earthworm burrows, channels left by the decay 
of roots, and whatever other openings there may be. As it is urged 
on by other water from above, it will sink down to the lower layers 
of soil until finally, if the rain is heavy enough, it will reach the 
level of the '' free " water, from which wells and springs are sup- 
plied. Very heavy and long-continued rains may fill the upper 
layers of soil with water. Dashing showers will run off the sur- 
face, if it slopes, as time is required for water to soak into the soil. 
When the land is dry, the farmer likes a slow, steady rain that 
continues for several hours — a soaking rain.^ 

How the water is held. — As the water passes downward, each 
particle of soil surrounds itself with a thin film or coating of water, 
much as does a marble when dipped into water. All through the^ 
soil are holes or pore spaces, which vary in size with the kind of 
soil. In a fine-grained soil, as clay, which packs closely, the spaces 
are small, and the water cannot pass through quickly. Much water 
is held back in the little cavities. In a loose, coarse-grained soil, 
as sand, the spaces are large and the water passes through very 
rapidly. We might compare the two types of soil with two pieces 
of cloth — one of fine linen and the other of cheese cloth. The 
former, with its fine spaces, will almost hold water, while the 
latter, with. its large openings, allows it to drain through rapidly. 

The area of the surface of a single lump of soil is not so great 
as the total area of the surfaces of all the separate particles into 
which it may be ground. (See Problem 5 on page 5.) There- 
fore a coarse, lumpy soil does not hold so much water in the form 
of films about the soil particles as does a clay soil. The moisture 
conditions are right for plant growth when each soil particle has 

1 It is interesting to know that in dry weather the soil has the power of taking 
from the air at night, even when there is no dew, some of the moisture that has 
been evaporated during the hot day. It has been determined that a stiff clay in 
one night may absorb moisture from the air equal to one-thirtieth of its weight. 
A dry peat or muck may take one-twelfth of its weight. Sandy soils absorb little 
in this way. 



THE SOIL WATER 69 

a film of water on its surface. If there is more water, so that 
the pore spaces are filled and the soil is saturated, the conditions 
are not good for the growing of plants. 

Perhaps we shall now understand why clay is frequently a sticky, 
wet soil, and forms puddles on the surface after a rain, while sand 
is a dry soil and almost never puddles. 

How soil water moves. — Water which sinks deep into the soil 
and supplies springs and wells is called ^^free " water. It moves 
freely through the open spaces. That which is held as films 
about soil particles is called " capillary " water. The movement 
of the capillary water is of the greatest importance to the farmer. 

Since the soil particles which make up the soil are in contact 
with one another, touch one another, the film on one particle is in 
contact with the film on another. Films of water are found 
also in the angles or joints where the particles are in contact. 
Thus there is established a chain of films, which reaches down 
into the soil from the surface. WTien the hot sun shines after 
a rain, the capillary water in the upper layers is evaporated into 
the air, and the surface of the soil tends to become dry. Then, 
by means of this chain, the capillary water from below is lifted 
to take the place of that which is evaporated, or has been used by 
plants ; a current toward the surface is created. 

Since the soil particles are in contact with one another on all 
sides, the capillary water can move horizontally, or sidewise, as 
well as downward or upward. The movement is generally from 
a moist area toward a dry area. In the dry growing season the 
movement is largely upward or sidewise. In fine soils, in which 
the particles are small, the chain is stronger, and the upward lift 
of capillary water is greater, than in coarse soils having large 
particles. 

Drainage. — In humid regions, enough water falls to more than 
completely fill the pore spaces in the soil. If moist soils did not 
provide some underdrainage, all lands, even the most rolling, would 
be swampy. More water must be removed from the soil than runs 



70 



AGRICULTURE 



off the surface. All lands that do not have natural underdrainage 
must be artificially underdrained. Surplus water in the pore spaces 
and excess water at the deeper levels must be removed in order 




•>:'£BSy8fg«SBy-'^j^«Waiff;;% . 



Ik;. 29. — This soil needs drainag(>. After rain it puddled. Then, when the 
sun shone, it " baked," or dried, until it cracked. 



that air may enter and that there may be a larger feeding area 
for plant roots. Plant roots will go down only as far as air can 
penetrate. 

Drainage has other uses than merely to remove surplus water 
and admit air, thereby giving the roots a larger feeding place. 



72 AGRICULTURE 

Water makes the ground cold. When it is removed, the ground 
warms up earlier in the spring and crops can be planted earlier. 
Plant food is more available in well-drained soils. Wet soils are 
likely to be sour or acid, and not well adapted for the growing of 
many kinds of plants. If the ground heaves in winter, breaking 
the plant roots, it is an indication that drainage is needed. Drain- 
age will largely prevent heaving. It will also largely prevent the 
'' baking " or cracking of soils in midsummer. It really provides 
more moisture, not less, for plants, because it removes only the 
harmful excess and allows the roots to go deeper and so to be in 
contact with more capillary water. 

The best means of artificially draining most lands is by laying 
tile drains in the soil three to five feet deep, and close enough to 
take care of all surplus water. When it is necessary to remo\re — 
only excess surface water, open surface ditches may be used. 

Irrigation. — Sometimes soils do not receive enough water, or it 
is not well enough distributed throughout the year, to meet the 
needs of growing plants. In such cases water must be supplied 
artificially. In many large areas in the western part of the 
United States no farm crops can be grown unless the land is irri- 
gated. ' In other regions, the rainfall is not sufficient for good 
crop growth. Fifty years ago less than 100,000 acres in the United 
States were , irrigated. To-day over 10,000,000 acres are being 
irrigated. Many more millions will be productive when they are 
irrigated. 

In the east, irrigation is also being practiced by farmers who grow 
vegetables or truck-crops for market. Their crops may be ruined 
if they depend wholly on natural rainfall, and they sometimes es- 
tablish systems of irrigation in their vegetable gardens. 

In the great western irrigation systems, immense dams are built 
to form reservoirs or artificial lakes, to hold back all the water from 
rains and winter snows. From these reservoirs, canals carry the 
water through the region to be watered. Ditches opening from the 
canals distribute it to the fields. In some plf>op.s canals and 



THE SOIL WATER 



73 




Fig. 31. — These plants have wilted because of too much water, causing a lack 

of soil air. 



74 AGRICULTURE 

ditches run back from rivers, and reservoirs do not have to be 
built. 

Relation of water to soil temperature. — We have already learned 
that much water makes the soil cold. This is because it takes five 
to eight times as much heat to raise the temperature of water one 
degree as to raise the temperature of dry soil one degree. It also 
takes a great deal of heat to evaporate excess water from the soil. 
A wet or moist soil is therefore much more difficult to warm than 
a dry soil. 

Growth will not begin in most cultivated crops when the tem- 
perature is below 40° F. Above this temperature, growth con- 
ditions improve up to a given temperature, beyond which they fall 
again from too great heat. Corn will not begin to grow below 48° 
or 49° F. It grows best at 93° F. 



Problem 54- Fill a four-ounce medicine bottle with well water. Cut 
a small slip of geranium and put the lower end into the water. Hang the 
bottle containing the slip in the window. Empty the water every other 
day and fill the bottle with fresh well water. Does the slip grow ? Does 
it have food? Where does it get its food? Is there dissolved mineral 
matter, plant-food, in the well water? Do you suppose that your well 
is simply a deep hole to catch the excess soil water, which contains plant- 
food? 

Problem 55. Take three long-necked lamp chimneys or glass tubes, 
and tie a piece of coarse muslin over one end of each. Fill one with coarse 
sand, one with sand and loam mixed, and one with clay, to within one and 
one half inches of the top. Jar carefully to compact the soil while filling. 
Stand the tubes in trays filled about two inches deep with very coarse 
sand or fine gravel. Fill each tube to the top with water. As the water 
sinks, add equal amounts to each tube. In which tube does the water sink 
fastest ? In which one does it drain away from the bottom first ? When 
each has begun to drain, fill each tube level full of water at the top and see 
how long it takes each to lose its one and one half inches of water. Keep 
the tubes for a few days and note which one dries first and which last. 

Problem 56. Are there any surface drains on your father's farm, or on 
any farm in the locality? Are there any underdrains? Are there wet 
places on your farm ? What kind of soil is there in the wet places ? How 
does it behave when it is dry? 



THE SOIL WATER • 75 

Problem 57. Write a short essay about what becomes of the rain that 
falls on your father's farm. 

Problem 58. Inside a circle three inches in diameter we can draw 
seven circles each one inch in diameter, and have considerable space left. 
What is the circumference of the three-inch circle ? What is the total 
circumference of the seven one-inch circles ? Suppose we filled all the 
remaining spaces with small circles ; would we add greatly to the total 
circumference of all the circles within the large one? This shows that 
particles in a fine soil have much more surface area to hold water than 
particles in a coarse soil. 

Problem 59. Where is the great Roosevelt dam ? Why is it there ? 



CHAPTER XII 

THE SOIL AIR 

It is easy enough to see that there must be moisture in the soil 
if plants are to grow, but perhaps we had not thought it is just as 
necessary that there be air in the soil. Perhaps we did not know 
that air can get into the soil at all. 

Relation of soil air to plant growth. — All plants require air 
around their growing parts, around the roots as well as about the 
stems and leaves. A soil is not in the best condition for the pro- 
duction of crops unless there is, within its depths, a free circulation 
of air. This is true because oxygen in the soil is as necessary for 
the hfe of the plant as oxygen in the atmosphere is for the animal. 
We could not live without the oxygen which we breathe from the 
atmosphere. 

If there is not free oxygen in the soil, that is, oxygen not com- 
bined with other elements, seeds will not germinate, or will not 
begin growth, but will rot. Neither can roots do their part. The 
great host of soil germs or bacteria, w^hose work it is to make certain 
plant-foods available, will perish if they cannot have air. In other 
words, all activities in the soil that have to do with the growi;h of 
plants will cease if air is not present. 

Nature of soil air. — The air in the soil has a somewhat different 
composition from that above ground. As a rule it contains less 
oxygen and more carbonic acid, ammonia, and vapor of water. 
It receives large amounts of carbonic acid and ammonia from the 
decay of humus ir> +>>e soil. The carbon from carbonic acid is a 
plant-food. 

76 



THE SOIL AIR 



77 



The particular composition of soil air makes it specially useful in 
plant growth. Carbonic acid, whichis taken up by the soil water from 
the soil air, aids greatly in dissolv- 
ing the mineral matter in soil and 
fitting it for the use of plants. It 
unites with other elements in the 
soil to form carbonates. These are 
compounds, or storehouses, of plant- 
forming materials not needed at the 
time, but to be used later. 

Where soil air is. — The air 
cannot occupy the space that is 
occupied by anything else. It 
therefore circulates in the open 
spaces or pores of the soil. If these 
spaces are filled by water, the air is 
driven out, and plants cannot grow. 
In order to ventilate such soil, that 
is, to admit air to it, it must be 
drained and the excess water re- 
moved. Proper drainage will lower 
the free or ground water three or 
four feet. The air can penetrate 
until it reaches the free water. 
This makes it possible for roots to 
reach way down and thus escape the 
effects of dry weather. When deep 
roots die and decay, they leave 
passageways through the lower 
layers of soil for the circulation of 
air and water. 

How soil air gets there. — From what we have already studied, 
we know that air gets into the soil through the pores, and through 
cracks, crevices, and passages made by earthworms or decayed 




Fig. 32. — The roots of the cow- 
pea, showing the nodules in which 
live the bacteria that gather ni- 
trogen. 



78 



AGRICULTURE 



roots. There are other ways also. When the rain water seeps 
into the soil, it carries air with it. When water drains away 
from the soil, or is carried upward by capillarity or tension and 
is evaporated, or used by plant roots, it acts by suction to draw 





^*^** 



n 



■^ 
J 



Fig. 33. — A good earth mulch holds the moisture, even in dry seasons, and allows 

air to enter. 



as' much air into the soil as there has water passed out. When 
the wind blows over the soil, it creates a suction that draws air 
into the soil. 

The farmer introduces air into his soil by plowing, turning the 
soil over, exposing it to the air, and making new pore spaces. 



THE SOIL AIR 79 

Problern 60. Put clay soil in a pot and plant seeds. Wet the surface 
of the soil and puddle or pack the clay while wet. Watch for the seeds to 
germinate and grow. Keep the pot soaked. At the same time put seeds 
in another pot filled with loose, mellow, moist soil. In which do the plants 
first appear ? Why do not the plants grow in the first soil ? 

Problem 61 . If there is a bare place on your father's farm, or on a 
neighboring farm, try to find out why it does not produce plants. Might 
one reason be that it is so hard that air cannot enter ? 

Problem 62. Why does very little grass grow on the playground by the 
schoolhouse during the summer vacation? 

Problem 63. Why do seeds rot in a water-soaked soil ? 

Problem 64- Do you suppose that you could cause seeds to germinate 
even in a water-logged soil if you thrust straws down to them ? 



CHAPTER XIII 

PLANT LIFE IN THE SOIL 

The kinds of plant life to be considered in this chapter are not the 
roots of plants, but lower and simpler forms that we call fungi and 
yeasts and bacteria; sometimes we call them all simply '' germs." 
We seldom think that the soil is teeming with countless millions of 
invisible plants which are busy making possible the growth of the 
higher plants. 

Fungi differ from yeasts and bacteria. They are not always 
invisible and may grow above ground. Molds, mushrooms, and 
toadstools are fungi. 

Yeasts are always tiny, invisible plants that can be seen only with 
the aid of a microscope. They are more abundant near the sur- 
face of the ground. 

Bacteria are the smallest of all the germs, and are the smallest 
living things. They are the most active in the soil in the farmer's 
behalf, and we shall study them especially. 

How germs live in the soil. — These invisible plants do not require 
sunlight. That is one reason why they can live in the soil. They 
do require plenty of organic, or humus, food and an abundance of 
water. As dry sandy soils contain little water or organic food, 
these little plant organisms are less numerous there. In moist 
soils they are always found. The soils must not be so moist, how- 
ever, as to be cold, for these tiny plants demand a comfortable tem- 
perature. Most of them are found in the first six inches of soil. 

Fungi are most numerous where there is a great abundance of 
vegetable matter in the soil, as in the forest. Yeasts gather 
wherever there is much sugar in the soil — not table sugar as we 



PLANT LIFE IN THE SOIL 81 

know it, but compounds made up of much the same materials. 
Bacteria thrive where there is proteid matter (containing much 
nitrogen) . Proteid matter is found wherever any animal or vege- 
table substance accumulates. Animal remains and manures are 
rich in proteids. In the barnyard and the manure heap bacteria 
exist in very great numbers, even as great as 100,000,000 in one 
gram of soil (a gram is .002 of a pound). 

What the germs do. — These germs simply live their lives in 
the soil. They grow, reproduce new germs, and die. But in this 
round of their lives they are of great value to the farmer. 

All plants and animals require food. Much of it is limited in 
quantity. There is little plant-food available in the soil at any one 
time, yet plants and animals have used food constantly for un- 
known centuries. And our soils are still producing plants. This is 
possible because the same food is used over and over again. One 
kind of living things uses the food and in so doing changes it into a 
form to be used by another kind of living things. The food ele- 
ments or substances pass through a circle or cycle, constantly re- 
turning to the form in which they started. 

Plants must be grown to feed animals. AJl tillage of the soil is 
to help plants to grow — to make the food in the soil available for 
plants. When the plants consume this food, they change it into 
a new form that cannot be used as food for plants. But is then 
just the right form for animals, and so animals consume the green 
plants. In the animal body the food compounds received in the 
plants that are eaten are again changed. Some of the compounds 
are returned to the soil in the manure. All of the others are re- 
turned when the animal dies and is buried. 

When the food materials, which came originally from the soil, 
have passed through these several changes and are returned once 
more to the soil, they are not then in a form to be used again 
by plants. This is where the germs in the soil do their part. 
Each of the three kinds goes to work. The fungi attack the 
vegetable tissues for their food. The yeasts revel in the sugars 



82 AGRICULTURE 

and starches, which are found in both plant and animal tissues. 
The bacteria act on all organic materials, but chiefly on the pro- 
teids. By the combined action of all three, the entire dead plant 
or animal is changed into simpler forms again. Without their aid 
the soil would soon become clogged with the dead bodies of plants 
and animals, and be useless for vegetation. 

But these germs do their work so well that many of the materials 
are changed into forms too simple to be used by plants. Nature is 
equal to this emergency, and has provided another class of soil 
organisms or germs to feed on the simple elements and change them 
into forms which are just right for plant-food. And there the foods 
start on their journey again. 

This circle; or cycle, of life, in which all living things have their 
part and receive their nourishment, helps us to understand wh^ 
the soil can produce crops for countless centuries. It is only when 
the farmer takes so much food from the soil in crops and returns 
nothing to it, that the cycle is broken, and soils become poor and 
unproductive. 

It is thought that some kinds of bacteria act on the mineral part 
of soil, just as others work on the organic part. The^^ aid the pro- 
cesses which we studied in Chapter IX in making the mineral foods 
available to plants. 

The formation of nitrates. — One of the most important plant- 
foods is nitrogen. In its pure state it cannot be used by plants 
and must be changed into a particular form, or compound, which we 
call nitrate. The nitrogen is made into nitrates by the soil bac- 
teria, which secure their nitrogen from the decaying organic 
matter, and from the air. This decaying organic matter may be 
vegetable remains, as roots, stems, and leaves, or animal manures, 
or dead animal bodies. By the action of several kinds of bacteria, 
each of which fits the material for the food of the next, the nitrates 
are created. 

Another activity. — Every farm boy knows that the fields are 
richest v\here clover has been grown. Certain crops, which we call 



PLANT LIFE IN THE SOIL 83 

legumes, such as clover, alfalfa, beans, peas, cowpeas, and vetches, 
leave the soil in a specially rich or fertile condition. The soil 
bacteria must be given credit for this unsual richness. Nature has 
provided a class of bacteria that penetrate the small rootlets and 
set up nitrogen factories, which we call root nodules. In these 
factories, which are established only on legume plants, nitrates are 
made and stored for the use of the plant itself and for other plants 
that will be grown on the soil after the legume is harvested. Be- 
cause legumes carr}^ so much nitrogen, they are valuable cattle 
foods as well as soil-ennchers. 

Soil inoculation. — Sometimes it is desirable to place these 
tiny plant organisms in soil in which they are lacking. This 
operation we call soil inoculation ; that is, we inoculate, or 
infect, the soil with bacteria. Soil inoculation may be practiced 
when a new legume is to be grown on the land. It is most 
easily done by sp-eading on the land soil from a field where the 
same kind of legume has groAvn successfully. The soil carries 
the bacteria, and thus thej^ get into or inoculate the new soil. 
If clover does not do well on one field, but thrives on another, 
it may be made to grow better on the first by spiinkhng on it 
some soil from the second. 

Soil diseases. — There are some kinds of invisible plant life in 
the soil which are not desirable. They are plant disease germs. 
They are just as active in the soil as the helpful kinds of germs, 
and may cause the farmer great loss. Clubroot of cabbage is a 
soil disease. 

Problem 65. With a spade, go into a field in which a heavy sod or 
stubble was plowed under last spring or last fall. Dig up some of the 
soil and note what changes are taking place in the vegetable parts that 
were plowed in. If possible, find next a field in which vegetable matter 
was plowed in the year before. What has become of the vegetable 
materials in this field ? Then go over to the woodlot, and where the trees 
are thickest dig down about fifteen inches. Describe the changes in the 
condition of the soil as you go down from the surface. What is most of this 
soil made from ? 



84 AGRICULTURE 

Problem 66. Can you find any mushrooms or toadstools in the woods 
or about the barn ? Why do they grow there ? 

Problem 67. Carefully pull up a clover, sweet clover, alfalfa, or some 
other legume plant, and look for the little nodules or swellings on the roots. 
They may be as small as pin heads, or much larger. Try to find them on 
the roots of two or three different kinds of legumes for comparison. Wash 
the roots carefully and keep them for a while in a glass jar in the school- 
room for observation. 

Problem 68. Legumes are the true pod-bearing plants. The pea-pod 
is the kind of fruit that botanists call a ''legume," and from this the 
name has been given to all the plants of this family. It is a large family. 
Most of them have pea-shaped or butterfly-like flowers. How many 
kinds of leguminous plants can you name? 

Problem 69. Write a story about the life cycle of a corn plant — what 
becomes of the plant and how the materials that are in it are carried round 
to go into another corn plant. 



CHAPTER XIV 



THE TILLAGE OF THE SOIL 



Tillage is the stirring or turning over of the soil to fit it for the 
growing of plants. Plowing and spading and harrowing and hoeing 
are forms of tillage. Land is tilled in order that crops may be 
planted and harvested, and to improve the condition of the soil 
so that it will yield the largest and best crops. 

When man first tilled the soil, centuries ago, he doubtless did it 
only to get his seed into the soil, or, in the case of root crops, to get 




Fig. 34. — Bottom view of a modern plow, showing the parts. 1, share; 2, mold- 
board ; 3, landslide ; 4, frog ; 5, brace ; 6, beam ; 7, clevis ; 8, handle. 



the crops out of the soil. Gradually it was learned that tillage had 
other uses — that it destroyed weeds, and that stirring the soil to 
remove weeds seemed to make the plants grow better. When the 
land did not produce good crops, the workman thought that it 
needed to have a rest instead of more thorough tillage. So he 
rested his land for a year, or ''fallowed" it, as we say to-day; that 
is, he allowed it to remain idle. 

History of tillage. — In the early part of the eighteenth century, 
Jethro Tull, an English landlord, began to teach that tillage is 

85 



86 



AGRICULTURE 



the most important farm operation. He declared that by tillage, 
which would make the soil fine for the use of plants, soils could be 
kept forever in a productive condition. He thought that the plants 
took the fine particles of soil themselves into the roots and digested 
them within the plant. He did not know, as we do to-day, that 
plants cannot take in solid materials, but must get their food from 
the soil in liquid form. He did know, however, that thorough 
tillage made the plants thrive, even though he did not know the 
true reason. Tull's teachings and writings completely changed 
the methods of farming of his day. Thereafter tillage occupied 

a more important place 
in farm operations. 

We shall learn in this 
chapter some of the^ 
reasons why the farm- 
ers of the present day 
till their soils. 

History of tillage 
tools. — The first tools 
for stirring the soil 
were for hand use. 
They were built after 
the fashion of the hoe. Later, crooked sticks, so shaped as to enter 
and loosen the soil, were used to draw behind the workman. This 
seems to have led to the development of the plow. The first plows 
were either pushed or drawn by man. The ancient Egyptians 
built and used a plow that had a beam, a shank, and a handle, 
and they used their animals to draw it. From this the next 
step was to provide the wearing parts with a shoe of iron. This 
was done very early, for it is written, 1100 years B.C., that the 
Israelites, who had little skill in the working of iron, '' went clown 
to the Philistines to sharpen, every man, his share and his 
coulter." 

From the first appearance of the plow to the present, many 




Fig. 35. — Sulky plow. 



THE TILLAGE OF THE SOIL 



87 



changes and improvements have been made, and several thousand 
different models, or types, have been designed at various times. 
At present there are very many kinds in use, from the single walk- 
ing plow to the large steam plows that carry gangs of sixteen to 




Fig. 36. — Gang plow, drawn by traction engine. Used for large area farming. 

twenty plows. These large gangs will plow, harrow, and occasion- 
ally seed, in one operation, 40 to 60 acres in a day. The develop- 
ment of this implement has a long history, and in one form or 
another it has had a part in the development of all nations and 
races. 

Next to the plow, the harrow is perhaps the oldest tillage tool. 
The first harrow was doubtless the limb of a tree with extending 
branches. From this developed the first type of harrow, a forked 
stick with spikes in each arm. Later a cross-arm was added and 
we had the ^^ A " harrow. The Romans used a square or oblong 
harrow with cross-bars carrying many teeth. Our modern har- 
rows all follow these same general principles. 

The first rollers were carefully chosen logs. Spikes or bars were 
driven into the ends and a yoke provided for drawing. This style 



88 



AGRICULTURE 



of roller was in use until within recent years. Because of difficulty 
in turning, the two-piece or two-section roller was devised. There 
are now both smooth and rough, or ribbed, rollers in use. 

The earliest cultivator was a sort of crude hoe, with at first a 
single shovel. This gave way to the double shovel and the use of 
animal power. From the latter was developed the straddle-row 




Fig. 37. — Spike tooth harrow. 



cultivator, to stir both sides of a row at one time. The double 
shovels, used ^in this country until 1860, were usually made by 
country blacksmiths. On April 22, 1856, George Esterly patented 
a straddle-row cultivator, and began the manufacture on a large 
scale. 

Why soils are tilled. — We have already learned that plants mil 
not grow unless their roots have a suitable home and feeding ground. 
An important factor in creating this suitable home is to have the 
soil in good physical condition ; that is, to have good soil texture. 
Tillage is the best means of improving the texture of soil. The 
following are some of the reasons why soils are improved by 
tillage : 

(1) Tillage makes the soil finer and deeper, so that roots can 
reach farther. 

(2) It turns up the moist soil in spring and enables the surface 
to dry enough to make a good, early seed-bed. 



THE TILLAGE OF THE SOIL 89 

(3) It helps the soil to hold a larger amount of useful moisture 
by fining or pulverizing it. 

(4) It saves moisture in the hot midsummer. 

(5) It stirs the soil and allows air to enter, 

(6) It prevents the growth of weeds, which take plant-food and 
moisture from the soil. 

(7) By tillage, vegetable matter is plowed into the soil to make 
it more productive. 

Tillage makes plant-food available. — There is a great deal of 
material in the soil that will serve as food for plants when it is 
changed into some other form. Plant-food is availaljle only when 
in a condition in which plants can use it. A man locked up in a 
barn full of wheat might become weak from hunger. Yet there 
is food enough near him to feed several hundred men if only it were 
in the right form. There is as nnich plant-food in the first sixteen 
inches of an acre of average soil as can be bought in fertilizers for 
$2000. It is the purpose of tillage to save the $2000 for the 
farmer and enable him to get his plant-food directly from the soil 
instead of buying it. 

As we have learned in the preceding chapters, moisture, heat, and 
air are necessary in the soil if the minerals are to be dissolved, the 
organic matter decayed, and the bacteria [do their work. All of 
these activities must take place in order to prepare the soil as 
food for plants. Tillage opens up the soil to receive moisture, 
heat, and air. It is therefore of first importance in creating 
the right conditions for the growth of plants. 

Tillage saves moisture. — Tillage, if it is well done, breaks the 
soil into very fine particles. We know that a soil made up of fine 
particles will hold much more moisture than a coarse one. As 
we have already learned, the moisture is in the form of thin films 
about each of the soil grains, and the fine soil particles have much 
more total surface area than the large particles, and therefore hold 
more film moisture. 

But tillage saves moisture for the plant in another way. Our 



THE TILLAGE OF THE SOIL 



91 



fathers cultivate their corn and cabbages and tomatoes, not only to 
keep weeds out, but also to keep the soil loose on top. Why do 




\J^^ 


'^^W'^' 




\-^'^ >,^: 




' v» 




- y» . 




.-» . ' 




-; - "•"•• 


n.^ 




^ 




Sc5 


i^^^'r "^ 


^S5 




i^P; 


SZl^^'^^y 



Fig. 39. — Good tillage saves moisture. 

they keep two or three inches of loose soil on top, which dries out 
as soon as it is stirred, and that much moisture is lost ? 



92 



AGRICULTURE 



Let us go out behind the barn or woodshed, and Hft a board or 
large stone that has lain there throughout the spring and early 




u^(; iinijrijvcb the -,. ii.ti<i .soil. 



summer. We find that the soil is moist under it, while the ground 
about is dry. The stone has prevented the moisture from evapo- 
rating into the air. The loose layer of surface soil, which we call a 
mulch, acts in much the same way as the stone. It serves as a 



'■'•4i»^ji 






■<^^ 



■■^J^' 



Fig. 41. — Footprints eompact the soil, and this brings the capillarywater to the 
surface. That is why they are dark and moist. 

blanket, covering all the field, to protect the lower layers of the soil 
from the strong summer heat and to prevent the moisture from 
escaping. By stirring and drying the surface mulch, its capillary 
moisture escapes. This breaks the connection with the chain of 
capillary moisture below and so this lower moisture is not lifted. 



THE TILLAGE OF THE SOIL 



93 



As soon as the soil becomes packed again by rolling, tramping, 
settling, or by its own weight, the chain becomes reestablished and 



/v^^l^^ 



^ 




Fig. 42. — A footprint showing how the soil is compacted. 

moisture is again drawn up and lost into the air. To save moisture 
in dry weather the surface must be kept lightly tilled so that there 
will always be a loose, dry surface mulch. 

The use of tillage tools. — The farmer needs many different kinds 
of tillage tools for different purposes. Some, as the plow, are to 




Fig. 43. — Diskhar 



94 



AGRICULTURE 




THE TILLAGE OF THE SOIL 



95 



stir the soil deeply and to cover the sod or stubble that is on the 
surface of the ground. Others, as the cultivator, tear up the soil 
to less depth than the plow, and lift and turn it. Others, as the 




Fig. 45. — Disk olov 



harrow, prepare and pulverize the surface of the soil and make the 
soil mulch. Others, as the roller, compact the soil and are specially 
useful on light, loose, sandy, or gravelly soils. 

There are many styles or types of each of these different tillage 
tools for special purposes. One kind of plow will not suit all con- 
ditions. There is a 
medium weight 
plow for the field 
and garden ; there 
is a large, heavy 
plow for hard- 
packed or stony 
ground; another 
kind of plow to rip 
the sod on the 
plains ; a hillside or 
reversible plow for sloping land or irrigated lands ; a subsoil plow to 
reach deep and stir the lower soil. There are walking and riding 
plows and steam gang plows ; and there are disk plows, which have 




Subsoil plow. 



96 



AGlUCULTURr] 



<;ir('ular, iiioviiblo sliares, for use in liard or sticky land. There are 
harrows with spike teetli or spring teeth or circular disk teeth, for 
different kinds of soil conditions. There are walking cultivators and 
i-idiug cultivators, and they may have shovels or spring teeth or 
(hsks. There are cultivators to take one row, or two rows, or 
three rows. 

Each tillage tool has its own use, and the careful farmer will 
choose his tools so as to get the ones that will do his various kinds of 
work best. 




Spring ioodi harrow. 



Dry-farming. — We now hear nuich about dry-farming. It is a 
s])e(nal kind of tillage, to save enough moisture so that crops may 
be grown cvvvy oihvv y(^ar. The land is made (hvp and fine 
to cat(^h and hold the I'ainfall ; and then the surface is k(^i)t in good 
tilth to ])rev(Mit tlu^ moisture from escai)ing. 

The purpose is to store u]) enough nu)isture one year, when 
crops are not grown, to sup])l(Mnent tlie rainfall of the next year 
so that a cro]) can be grown during that year. The third year 
the huul is bare again, to store u]) moisture^ for a crop to be 
grown during the fourth year. 

Where the rainfall is normally 20 incluvs or less in the year, 
dry-farming or irrigation must be practiced. 



THE TILLAGl] OF TUK SOIL 



97 




98 AGRICULTURE 

Problem 70. Place some small marbles or pebbles in one timibler. 
Put an equal weight of fine soil in another tumbler. We shall then have 
in the second tumbler the same amount of material as though the marbles 
or pebbles were ground into fine powder. Pour water into each tumbler 
until it stands on the top of the soil in one tumbler and just covers the 
pebbles in the other. Which takes the larger , quantity of water? If 
we could measure the amount of film water, we should find that the soil 
has two to four times as much as the marbles. Tip the tumbers and let 
the water run out. Which loses the most water ? Which holds the most ? 
Why ? What does this teach in regard to tillage ? 

Problem 71. Describe the different kinds of plows on your father's 
farm ? What is each used for ? Have you any old ones that are not used 
now? How are they different from the ones you are using? 

Problem 72. Ask the teacher to write on the blackboard a list of all 
the different kinds of tillage tools, including those used by hand, on the 
farms in the neighborhood. The pupils should tell the teacher what to 
write. Then recite (or write) from this list what each is used for, how- 
it stirs the soil, and when it is used. 

Problem 73. Does your father plow in the fall or the spring ? Why ? 
Does he roll his land ? Why ? Why does he drag it ? 

Problem 71^. For what crops on your farm must the soil be tilled in 
order that they may be planted? For what ones is it again stirred or 
turned in order to harvest them? 

Problem 75. If you live in a dry-farming region, describe how the 
work is performed. If you live in a humid region, ask your parents or 
teacher to read you something about dry-farming. Where are the dry- 
farming regions? 

Problem 76. What is the amount of the annual rainfall of your region ? 



CHAPTER XV 

IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL 

The first thing the farmer must do is to make his land productive; 
then he must aim to keep it productive. 

Plant-food in the soil. — When studying the character and com- 
position of the soil in Chapter X, we learned that plants take cer- 
tain substances from it which w^e call plant-foods. These sub- 
stances include elements called sodium, potassium, siHcon, calcium, 
magnesium, phosphorus, iron, chlorine, and others. From the air 
the plant gets other elements called carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and 
nitrogen. 

A plant must have every one of these different plant-foods. 
Each contributes its part to the growth of the plant, and one can- 
not be substituted for another. If a soil contained all of them 
except potassium, it could not grow plants. If it contained enough 
of everything but phosphorus to produce thirty-five bushels of 
wheat, and contained enough phosphorus for only fifteen bushels of 
wheat, then fifteen bushels is all it could possibly produce. In 
order to be fertile it must contain a sufficient amount of each of 
the plant-foods to meet the needs of the crop to be grown. 

Plant-food must be available. — Not every soil that contains an 
abundance of plant-food is fertile, however. Gravel-stones may 
contain all the necessary mineral plant-foods, and muck contains 
nitrogen; yet a mixture of gravel-stones and muck will not make a 
fertile soil. If the stones should be ground into soil, much available 
plant-food might result. In order to be available, or useful, the 
plant-food must be in such condition that it can be dissolved by 
the soil water ; for plants can take their food only when it is dis- 
soh ed in water, or is in liquid form. 

99 



100 AGRICULTURE 

Amount of plant-food in the soil. — The farm soil nearly always 
contains an abundance of the plant-food substances; but some of 
them may be present in -very small quantities, or may be in such 
form that the plant cannot use them. "Or the farmer may grow crops 
year after year and not return anything to the soil, and in this 
way greatly reduce the available plant-food. Of the fourteen sub- 
stances, or elements, that make up the food of plants, only three, 
or occasionally four, are Hkely to be lacking. These are nitiogen, 
phosphoric acid, and potash, and sometimes lime. 

When any one of these substances is lacking, it must be provided. 
Usually this is done in one of two ways: either by better tillage, 
which, as we know, helps to change plant-food into a form to be 
used })y plants, or by adding the plant-food directly to the soil 
in the form of fertilizer. ^-^ 

There are two general classes of fertilizers: one, which is made 
on the farm, we call farm manure ; the other, which is generally 
bought on the market, is called by the farmer commercial fertili- 
zer. Phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen may be added to the 
soil by the use of either of these kinds of fertilizCxS. 

Phosphoric acid. — We ha^e all seen phosphoric acid. When a 
match is struck, the little curl of white smoke which first appears 
is phosphoric acid. The old sulfur matches show this best. In the 
blue-black or red tip of one of these matches there is a small 
amount of the substance we call phosphorus. When this phos- 
phorus is warmed by rubbing it against something, as in striking 
the match, it unites with oxygen from the air. The white substance 
of the smoke is the result of the union or combination of the phos- 
phoius and the oxygen. 

In a fertilizer purchased for its phosphorus, the phosphoric 
acid is united or combined with lime. The product is called 
phosphate of hme. Lime and phosphoric acid unite in three 
different proportions which have different values: 1 part of 
phosphoric acid with 3 parts of lime; 1 of phosphoric acid 
with 2 of lime; 1 of phosphoric acid with 1 of lime. It is 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL 101 

in the form of these three combinations that the plant gets 
its phosphoric acid. The first combination, 1 to 3, will not 
dissolve in water, so that it cannot be used immediately b\" plants. 
The second combination, 1 to 2, will dissolve in soil water because 
the soil w^ater contains carbonic acid, which makes its action 
stronger. This form is therefore gradually made available to 
plants. The third combination, 1 to 1, will dissolve in water as 
readih^ as does sugar or salt, so that it is at once available to 
plants. 

Phosphate is made chiefly from bones. In certain places in the 
southern part of the United States there are large bone deposits 
which are called ''phosphate rock." In this rock the phosphate is in 
the 1 to 3 form and so will not dissolve in soil water. In order to 
make it dissolve, it is treated with a strong acid, called sulfuric 
acid, and water. The sulfuric acid takes some of the lime away, 
and reduces the combination to 1 to 2 or 1 to 1, which will dissolve 
in the soil water. The lime that is taken away unites w^ith the 
sulfuric acid and forms a new^ substance called sulfate of lime. 
Gypsum, or land plaster, which the farmer uses for fertilizer, is the 
common name for this sulfate of lime. 

Potash. — Potash, as well as phosphoric acid, must often be 
added to the soil. It exists in the soil, locked tight in a compound 
that will not dissolve in water ; consequently, much of the potash 
is not available to plants. It may gradually be made available by 
tillage. 

When vegetable matter decays, acids are formed which attack 
the locked-up potash and set some of it free for plant use. A soil 
that contains plenty of humus is likely to have potash in a usable 
form. 

Potash can be bought as commercial fertihzer to apply to the soil. 
There are large deposits in Germany from which our supply comes. 
Wood ashes contain potash and are a good fertihzer. 

Nitrogen. — Nitrogen in the form for plant use is found prmci- 
pally in the dark surface soil. It comes from the humus. There is 



102 AGRICULTURE 

none of this element in common rocks. Four fifths of the air is 
nitrogen, and all nitrogen comes originally from the air. 

In Chapter XIII we learned that plants can use nitrogen only 
when it is in the form which we call nitrate. When nitrogen is 
combined with oxygen, and with sodium, potassium, or lime, ni- 
trates are formed. When organic mattei decays in the soil, there 
results a form of nitrogen called organic nitrogen. This form is not 
of any use to plants. If the soil is well tilled and has plenty of 
of moisture, the bacteria will change the organic nitrogen to 
nitric acid. Then, by combining this form with sodium, potash, 
or lime, they will change it to nitrates. In this last condition it 
is ready to be used by plants. 

Nitrogen may be added to the soil by plowing in vegetable 
matter, which we call green manure, oi by applying barnyard ma;— - 
mire ; or it may be bought on the market in certain combinations 
of commercial fertilizer, such as sodium, nitrate, dried blood, and 
tankage. A very good way to add nitrogen is to grow legumes, or 
leguminous plants, which store nitrogen in their roots. 

Animal manures. — Soils often need to be improved not only by 
the addition of certain plant-food substances, but in their texture 
as well. They may be infertile because of poor texture or because 
of lack of sufficient moisture. Barnyard manure is one of the best 
fertilizers to add to the soil because it not onl}^ supphes some 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but because it carries useful 
bacteria and contains much vegetable matter. The vegetable 
matter decays to fo/m humus. This makes the soil lighter and 
warmer, and enables it to hold more moisture. 

The manure from all farm animals is useful in improving the soil. 
Horse manure is richer in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash 
than the manure from cattle or hogs. Sheep manure is very rich 
in these substances, and poultry manure is the richest of all. 

Green manures. — All good farm soil must contain humus. The 
addition of vegetable matter to the soil is therefore an important 
stop in the improvement of the soil. Sometimes the farmer will 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL 103 

grow a crop merely to plow into the soil to improve it. Such a 
crop is called a green manure, because the plants are generally 
plowed under when they are still green. The most useful plants 
for green manures are the legumes, as clover, alfalfa, peas, vetches, 
soybeans, and cowpeas, because they not only add vegetable matter 
to be changed into humus, but also add nitrogen. They are some- 
times called nitrogen-gathering crops, because they gather nitro- 
gen in the nodules on their roots. They are sometimes called cover- 
crops, because they cover or occupy the land when it otherwise 
would be bare, and catch-crops, because they are grown in the short 
intervals between the gi owing of other crops. 

Storing an account for the future. — The soil is the farmer's bank 
account on which he must draw for his living for all the years to 
come. If he uses up his account, he will suffer. If he adds a little 
to his account from year to year, he will accumulate a good invest- 
ment. If he robs his soil, takes plant-food out in the form of crops 
and puts nothing of equal value back in, he will reduce his soil fer- 
tility until he cannot raise crops. If he adds to his soil fertihty 
from year to year, putting back what is needed, by good tillage, 
farm manures, green manures, or commercial fertilizers, he will 
store an account in the soil that will pay him well in big, well- 
grown crops. 

When a farmer dies, or moves away, that does not end the use- 
fulness of his farm. Some one else must make a living from it. A 
good farmer thinks of those who are to come after him. Some day 
all farmers will be of the kind that make the soil more useful rather 
than less useful by their farming. 

On our farm. — It pays us to improve our soil. It is giving us a 
good living, and we must treat it so that it always will. On our 
garden we spread a good dressing of 5 to 10 loads per acre of rich 
stable manure in the spring and work it into the soil with a disk 
or spring-tooth hariow. If we need all the manure on the meadow, 
we apply one half to one ton per acre of a good commercial garden 
fertilizer to the garden. We have an orchard which we keep 



104 AGRICULTURE 

tilled during the summer. In the late summer we plant a cover- 
crop or green-manure crop to protect the soil in the winter and to 
plow in the next spring. 

We like to give our meadows a moderate dressing of manure, 
not only to help the grass, but because we expect to follow the 
grass by corn. Every three to six years we apply about 1000 
pounds of lime on the fields where grass is grown in the rotation. 
On soils in some other parts of the country this may not be 
needed. When we plow under the sod, we add vegetable matter 
to the soil, and also receive benefit from the manure. When 
we plant the small giain after the corn, we sow in the grain-drill 
200 to 400 pounds of a good commercial fertilizer containing nitro- 
gen, phosphoric acid, and potash. We follow the grain with hay, 
and always plant clover in the hay, for it is valuable as cattle fefed^ 
and also enriches the soil. The plants that grow with the clover 
seem to be benefited by it also. 

Problem 77. Does your father use barnyard manure on his farm for 
fertilizer? Where does he spread it? Why does he spread it there? 
Does he use commercial fertilizers with any of his crops ? What does he 
use? Why does he use them with these particular crops? 

Problem. 78. Does your father grow any cover-crops to plow in ? 
What kinds does he grow ? Why ? Does he sow them so that they will 
not interfere with other crops ? When are they plowed in ? Does he get 
good crops from the fields on which cover-crops have been grown ? 

Problem 79. Ask your father to explain to you all about his method of 
improving his soil. Write a short essay about soil improvement on your 
farm. 



PART III 

FARM PLANTS 



CHAPTER XVI 



THE NATURE OF PLANTS 



Plants, like animals, must have food, water, and air. Also, 
they must have warmth and li,G;ht. It is easy to see what animals 
eat and drink, but not so with plants. And yet, if we will, we may 
know in a general way how the plant gets its food and its air, how 
it digests and circulates its food, and how it grows and bears 
fruit. To understand these processes, we must know about the 
nature of plants, — what their dif- 
ferent parts are and what they do. 

Parts of the plant. — We know 
that a plant has three parts — roots, 
stem, and leaves. These perform 
for the plant three kinds of service ; 
each has its own work to do. These 
parts work together in perfect har- 
mony, just as do the parts of our 
own body; and together they form 
a living, growing plant. 

The root system. — To study the 
root system we must have a plant 
before us to examine. Let us bring 
in from our gardens a radish, or a 
beet, or a turnip. We must dig it 
up carefully so as to save all the 
fine roots. Your radish will look 
somewhat like the one shown by 
the picture in Fig. 49. The upper 

107 




Fig. 49. — Radish, showing large, 
fleshy root, small tapering root, 
(a), and rootlet (6). 



108 



AGRICULTURE 



part of the root is large and round, and is stored full of food. 

Running out from the lower end of this large part is a common 

root about the size of a slate-pencil, which tapers to a point about 

five inches below. Fine rootlets are attached to the sides of it. 
Similar rootlets are attached also to the thickened 
upper part of the root. 

Root-hairs. — To understand how these root- 
lets obtain food from the soil, we must see the 
fine root-hairs that clothe them near the lower 
end. These hairs can be seen best if we germi- 
nate a few radish seeds so that no delicate parts 
of the roots will be injured. The root-hairs are 
very delicate, and we have broken most of them 
off in pulling the radish out of the soil. Sow a^ 
few seeds in packing-moss or between the folds 
of black cloth and keep them moist. In a few 
days the seeds will have germinated, and the 
roots will be an inch or two long. Lift one side 
of the cloth carefully and study the seedlings. 
Notice that at a distance of about one fourth 
inch from the tip, the root is covered with a 
delicate fringe of hairs. Dip one of the plants 
into water ; when removed the hairs cannot be 
seen. The water has matted them against the 
root so that they are invisible. They are so 

delicate that it is no wonder we break them in pulling the radish 

from the soil. 

These root-hairs clothe all the young, growing rootlets on the 

radish. But they are not young roots. They never grow larger. 

They differ from the remainder of the root. Each root-hair is a 

single cell, shaped like a tube, and contains the living matter of the 

plant. 

The plant-food dissolved in the soil water passes through the 

walls of these root-hairs into the root system. There are no holes 




Fig. 50. — A very 
young radish 
plant, showing 
the root-hairs. 



THE NATURE OF PLANTS 



109 



or pores for it to enter, as we might suppose. It must pass 
directly through the walls, or surfaces, of the cells. It is able to do 
this because the cell contains sap, which is a stronger hquid than 
the soil water. The sap therefore draws or sucks the soil water 
through the walls. As the hairs are 
slender and very numerous, they are 
in contact with a large area of soil and 
consequently take in much soil water. 
The surfaces of the rootlets themselves 
also take in some soil water. 

The root-hairs help to secure the 
plant-food in another way. They are 
provided with an acid, which, when it 
comes in contact with the soil particles, 
dissolves food elements that are needed. 
These are taken up by the soil water 
and so enter the plant. 

Once inside, the soil water, contain- 
ing its plant-food, passes into the root- 
lets, the roots, and up into the stem, by 
the same process by which it entered 
the root-hairs. It finally reaches the 
leaves, where, by the aid of sunshine, 
the water taken from the soil is united 
with the food taken from the air 
through the leaves, and starch, an im- 
portant plant-food, is formed. The 
plant mixes, or combines, several sub- 
stances to make its food, much as 
our mothers mix flour, milk, yeast, lard, and salt to make bread. 

Perhaps we shall now understand why the roots cannot use solid 
soil particles. There is no place for solid particles to enter the fine 
root-hairs. It may be said that roots drink their food rather than 
eat it. 




Fig. 51. 



- The root-hairs cling 
to the soil. 



110 



AGRICULTURE 



The stem. — As the 
I)hint has a root system 
to gather the water and 
mineral foods needed in 
its growth, so it has a 
leaf system to take from 
the air the food sub- 
stances which it needs 
from the air. The stem 
(or, in the case of trees, 
the trunk), branches, and 
twigs, connect the work- 
ing centers, the roots and 
the leaves, so that theyL 
can exchange products 
needed by each other. 
In the stem are '' ducts,'' 
or tube-like channels, in 
which the soil water 
travels upward rapidly to 
the leaves. There are 
other channels, made by 
a chain of cells, through 
which the food manufac- 
tured in the leaves is car- 
ried to the roots and to 
the other parts of the 
plant, to be stored or to 
be used in growth. The 
stem supports the leaves, 
and is an important link 
in the circulatory system 
of the plant. 
The leaf system. — Air is a gas ; that is, it is a substance that is 




Fig. 52. — The years' growth. The hirge branches 
represent the ends of the different years growths 
of the main shoots. Maple. 



THE NATURE OF PLANTS 111 

neither a liquid nor a solid. The food that plants take from the air 
is said to be in gaseous form. We are interested in the substances 
the plant takes from the air, how it gets them, and what it does with 
them. 

Carbon. — A considerable part of every plant is made up of a 
substance called carbon. At least half of the bulk of a tree, aside 
from the water it contains, is carbon. When a piece of wood, as 
the limb of a tree, is charred, the black charcoal that remains is 
carbon. A corn plant in the roasting-ear stage is about four fifths, 
or 80 per cent, water. After the water has been taken out, only 
about one fifth, or 20 per cent, of the plant remains. The part 
that remains after the w^ater has been evaporated is called the 
'* dry matter " of the plant. It is the solid part. Carbon, and 
the substances or elements with which it is united, make up more 
than nine tenths of the dry matter of the corn plant. 

The plant gets its carbon from the air. Strange as it may seem, 
much of the solid part of the plant comes from the air in the form 
of gas. If we burn the corn plant, nine tenths of the solid matter 
will pass back again into the air in the form of a gas which we call 
'' carbon dioxid." This is exactly the form in which the carbon 
was taken from the air. This gas is composed of one part carbon 
to two parts oxygen, both being gases. If we represent carbon 
by the letter C, and oxygen by the letter O, we could represent 
carbon dioxid by CO2. 

How the air enters the leaf. — The leaf is delicate in texture and 
often the air can enter directly into it through its walls. However, 
nature has provided special openings, called stomates or stomata, 
for the entrance of air into the plant. These stomates are small 
pores, which are very numerous on the under side of the leaf. They 
are so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye. The 
under side of an apple leaf has about 100,000 pores to each square 
inch. The air passes into the leaf through the pores. 

Leaf-green or chlorophyll. — The substance which gives plants 
their green color is called '' leaf-green" or ''chlorophyll." It exists 



112 AGRICULTURE 

as small oval bodies, or chlorophyll grains. Those grains are 
specially nuinca-ous on the upper side; of the leaf, where they are 
exposed to the sunlight. That is why the upper side is generally 
a darker green than the lower sid(\ 

The l(»af-gr(;en is produced only in i)lants or parts of plant ex- 
posed to the light. It has been determined that light and leaf- 
green tog(!ther an^ the means by whi(;h the plant is able to take 
its carbon from the air. Plants (containing no chlorophyll can form 
no starch, because they contain no carbon. During the hours 
of sunlight, the plant takes in carbon dioxid by means of the 
chlorophyll grains. 

The leaf-green absorbs the energy of the sun's rays, which it 
uses in uniting the carbon dioxid obtained from the air with some 
of the water brought from the soil by the roots. The product is 
called starch. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 
Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. There is more oxygen 
than is needed when i\u) water and the carbon dioxid unite, and it 
is returned to the air. Starch is made only in leaves that are 
exposed to sunlight. No starch can be formed in the dark. 

Starch is formed in very small grains, which will not dissolve in 
water. It is therefore not in a form for immediate use by the plant 
in growth, and must first be '' digested." It is digested by a sub- 
stance called a ferment which acts on the starch and changes 
it to sugar ; and we know that sugar readily dissolves in water. In 
this latter form it is circulated to all parts of the plant where growth 
is taking pla(;e. In woody plants, as trees, it flows downward 
through the inner bark, just under the surface. In spring the 
maple sap is sweet, because it contains this dissolved sugar on its 
way to supply the needs of the roots. 

Not all of the starch is needed for immediate use by the plant, 
and so the surplus is stored for use in the early spring. The fleshy 
part of our radish contains stored-up starch. Fruit-trees usually 
blossom in the spring before they are able to make any plant-food 
that season. The young leaves and the blossoms must then be 



THE NATURE OF PLANTS 



113 



supported by the food that has been stored in the branches, twigs, 
and buds during the previous season. 

Protoplasm. — What has become of the mineral foods carried 
into the plant and up to the leaves in the soil water ? In the leaves 
the soil water meets the liquid containing the substances which 
have been taken in from the air. These two liquids unite, and there 
is formed a product called proto- 
plasm. Protoplasm is the real 
living matter in plants. It con- 
tains sulfur, phosphorus, potas- 
sium, and other elements. It 
exists in the plant cells, where 
it stimulates all the activities of 
the plant. 

Transpiration. — In Chap- 
ter XI we learned that crops 
take from the soil 300 to 500 tons 
of water to make one ton of dry 
plant substance. Some of this 
water is used in the plants in 
dissolving and circulating the 
foods, and in keeping the plants 
" fresh," and strong. But much 
more water is taken into tne 
plant than is needed. The sur- 
plus is given off from the leaves 
into the atmosphere by evapora- 
tion. This process is known as 

''transpiration"; that is, the leaves transpire or give off mois- 
ture. If the leaves give off more moisture than the roots 
supply, the plant wilts. The water is then taken out of the 
cells, out of the circulatory system, and the cells collapse. This 
teaches us again the necessity of an abundance of moisture in 
the soil. 




Fig. 53. — The effect of transpiration. 
The sHp on the left has lost its mois- 
ture by transpiration, and has wilted. 
On the right, the upper tumbler has 
prevented nmch of the transpiration, 
and the slip is still fresh. 



114 AGRICULTURE 

The flower and the fruit. — When roots, stem, and leaves have 
stored a sufficient surplus of food, the plant begins to flower. The 
flower springs from a bud on the stem or on a twig. Sometimes the 
flower is prominent and beautiful to look at, as on the apple tree, 
and sometimes it is not so readily distinguished, as in wheat or oats. 

Very much has been intrusted to the flower. It contains the 
organs, or parts, which create the fruit. The fruit contains the 
seeds, from which new plants are to be grown. The flower is 
therefore the reproductive part of the plant. If it fails to do its 
part, there will be no fruit and no new plant, unless a new plant can 
be started from a slip or cutting from the old plant. The first work 
of the fruit is to nourish and protect the young seeds in their 
development. The flesh of the apple is not made by the plant 
merely to be eaten by the boy, but to nourish and protect its^ 
seeds while they are forming. 

•Parts of the flower. — ^ If you were to open a flower of the peach, 
you would find the very small peach in the center. This part is 
called the ''pistil." In the apple flower, the pistil has five parts or 
branches. Around the pistil in the peach and the apple blossom 
are the ''stamens," that bear the "pollen." When the pollen falls 
on the pistil, it causes the pistil to set seed and fruit. Bees and 
the wind carry the pollen. Peach and apple flowers are inclosed 
in showy leaves or parts called " petals." 

Problem 80. Dissolve one ounce of saltpetre, purchased at a drug 
store, in one pint of water. Mark it Solution I. Dissolve a small piece 
of saltpetre, not larger than a peach pit (about one seventh ounce), in one 
gallon of water. Mark the latter Solution II. Cut several sHces of 
potato tuber about one eighth of an inch in thickness and let them he in 
the air for a half hour. Then put a few of the slices into some of Solution 
I and others into some of Solution II. In about one half hour compare 
the slices in the two solutions. The pieces in the weak solution (No. II) 
will be rigid and stiff. Those in the strong solution (No. I) will be limp 
and flexible. This indicates that those in the strong solution have lost 
some water from their cells, while those in the weak solution have taken 
some water into their cells. 



THE NATURE OF PLANTS 115 

This experiment illustrates the way in which water is taken into the 
roots. As long as the soil solution is weaker than the living matter in 
the root, water is taken into the roots. When the soil solution becomes 
stronger than the root solution, the moisture from the root is drawn into 
the soil. The passage is always toward the stronger solution. It is 
possible to make soils so rich that plants cannot grow. The root-hairs 
can absorb only water which contains but a small amount of plant-food. 

Problem 81. Remove a small plant from the ground carefully, by lift- 
ing it out with a shovel, spade, or trowel. Then slowly wash away the 
earth till all the roots or rootlets are exposed. Note how extensive the 
roots are, the size and shape, the mode of branching. See whether you 
can find any difference between the roots of oats and wheat. 

Problem 82. To show that the root-hairs excrete an acid that dissolves 
minerals, place a half inch of sawdust on a polished marble block. Plant 
seeds in the sawdust and moisten it. After the small plants have pro- 
duced a few leaves, turn the mass of sawdust over and observe the prints 
of the roots on the marble. The lines on the marble show where the 
mineral has been dissolved. 

Problem 83. Can a farmer apply too much fertilizer to his soil ? Why ? 

Problem 84. What plants grown on j^our father's farm store up starch 
for future use? Where is it stored? 

Problem 85. When potatoes sprout in a dark cellar, why are the sprouts 
white instead of green ? How can they sprout, without being planted in 
the ground ? 

Problem 86. Find the pistils and stamens in some flower that you 
know. 



CHAPTER XVII 

CLASSIFICATION OP PLANTS 

Thkre iU'v inimy (liffcrcnt kinds of plants in any locality. A 
fivc-ininutc walk through the fields or tlio woods will reveal a 
groat variety to a wide-awake, observing l)(\y or girl. There are 
trees of many kinds, shapes, antl sizes ; some are open and widcv 
spreading, others are dense and compact ; some an^ evergreen^ 
others are ban^ in the winter; some bear fruits, some nuts, some 
cones. Th(T(; are erect, sturdy bushes and low, s])rawling bushes. 
There are vines that crec^p on the grovmd, others that creep over 
nx'ks, others that climb trees. Tlierc^ are delicate flowering plants, 
and irmshrooms and toadstA)ols. In the soil are countless hosts 
of microsc()})i(; plants ; in the water, sea-weeds and other water 
])lants ; in the marshes, sedges, lilies, and cat-tails. 

The farm plants. — On the farm therc^ is alscj grcuit variety 
among cultivated plants. There are tree fruits and bush fruits; 
slender, upright grasses, and low, trailing clovers ; thick, heavy 
root crops, and light, waving grains ;" loose, leafy lettuce and solid, 
round cabbages. Some plants live for many years, others for 
but one year; some pro(hice many bushels of fruit, others a single 
fruit ; sonu^ lift their fruit in the air, some bear it on the surface 
of the ground, and sonu^ hide it in the soil. Some grow in thick, 
tangled masses, others grow alon(\ Each has a habit of life of its 
own, and will grow where it can live its own life best. 

Why there are differences. — Plants have become adapted to 
all places on the (^arth where life is ])()ssible. The great variety of 
conditions in nature has called for many kinds of plants. Some 

IK) 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 117 

locations are wet, others dry; some are sunny, others shaded; 
some are exposed to the wind and the storm, others are secluded,' 
quiet, and protected; some are rocky slopes, others are deep' 




Fig. 54. — Young tobacco plants growing under a lath shade. 



I IS A(;iM('ni;rmii-] 

IVrtilc vnllcys ; some ju'c simdy, ollicrs slilT clny. In (lie iiumy 
(•(Milurics of (he |)hs1, (M'ria'm kinds of pljuils luivc hccii ^rjidiuilly 
.'id.'iplcd to meet cjicli of these v.'U'ious coiidiiioiis, niid llic result 
is shown in (lie v:M-ie(.y we linve lo-dny. 

There is yel, jiiiolher reusoii why jill phmis ;ire not nlike. Most 
pl;mls prochice ljir^;e (nuuitilies of seeds. II is not possible for 
ne;u'ly .'ill of these seeds to iiji'ow, heenuse of Inck of space on the 
surface of the ea,rth. Tliis i-esulls in a, stru^j2;le foi" place, a, stru^-^ki 
that never eejises. When certain plants win the chief places, 
olheis nuist a(laj)t themselves (o wha.t is left. Thus, in th(^ 
meadow there ai'c tall ^I'asses, lower-ji;rowin^" clovers, and below 
(hem still smallei' ,i!;ra,sses a,nd weeds. In the h'UCH^ row ar(^ bushes, 
ji;ra-sses, weeds, and trailin.i:; vines. The competition develo])S 
variety. Plants are plastic ; that is, they may chanj»;(^ to lucet^^ 
the conditions in which they imist^ live. 

The farmer has taken advaiita|!;e of this |)la,stic or variable 
nature of plants and has modified the cultivaied ])lants to suit 
his wishes. He has thus added to tlu^ diversity in ])lant lif(\ 
The many varieties of tomatoes in our gardens to-day ar(^ very 
dilTereiit from the wild tomato from which they luive been de- 
veloped. The wild ai)|)le has little use; yet, from it, man has 
created an almost endless munber of useful varieties. 

How plants are classified. These dilleremu'S in form, iiabits, 
Ien,i2;th of life, and other (lualities hav(^ boon taken advantaj>;e of 
ill }i;roupin^' or classifyin.i;- plants for purposes of study a,!id com- 
])a,rison. 

We may chissify |)lants accoi-din.i;- to their len,i;t h of lile ; we 
th(>ii have a ^roup of aiimial plants, which live not more than one 
year from tho ])lantin^ of seed to the productio!! of new seed, as 
wheat, oats, barley, peas, beans, and toinato(>s; a j;i-()up of bien- 
nial plants, which live two years from seed to seed, as beets, 
parsnips, and common mullein ; a, <>;roup of pcToimial ])la,nt,s, whic^h 
live more than two years, as aspa,ra);us, alfalfa,, swecM, c1ov(T, 
straw! )ei-ries, bushes, and tfces. 



CJ.ASSlFlCA'riON OF 1»LAN1VS 



IIU 




Fio. 55. — r.'irt (>r u pcuniil, |)lunl-, hIiowiiik rootH, root iiodiilcH.JjirHljjniilH. 
'I'lio inil-H iini horno undcrKrouinl. 



no 



ACUilCULTUHK 



Use. — AiiolluT very coininoii chissificaiion of pbuits, bascMl on 
the use tluit is iiuuk* of them, toj»;etli(M- vv^it li their hiibits of ^;rowth, 
is as follows : — 

(1) .r'()ra«i;e niid fodder ('r()])s, :is timothy, alfalfa, S()r^;hum, and 
coi'n fod(l(M". 

(2) ( 'ei-eal crops, a,s wheat, oats, ry(% ])arley, and ru'W 









■f^A 


mm 


f 



I'lU. r»('». — A coKoii pl.iiit, liciuiii;!; ;i I;ii;j:c crop. 

(.'i) ]loot crops, as cajTot, ])aisni]), turnip, mangel, beet, and 
su,<»;ar-boct. 

(4) Fiber crops, as flax, hem]), and cotton. 

(5) Fruit crops, as apple, peach, pear, quince, (un-rant, and 
bla(;kb(Try. 

(()) \'ej;(>table crops, as tomato, pea, bean, cucumber, and celery. 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 



121 



(7) Ornamental plants, as rose, lilac, geranium, sweet p(;a, and 
nasturtium. 

(8) Timber crops, as oak, chcistunt, maple, and pine. 
Ther(i arc other 

special grou[)S that 
might be added, as 
sugar plants, oil plants, 
perfumery plants, si)ice 
])lants, dye-stuff plants, 
and nuKlicinal plants. 

When we speak of 
forage crops, or root 
crops, or cereal crops, 
the person to whom 
we are talking knows 
at once what kind of 
plants we are speaking 
about, because these; 
groups are well estab- 
lished. And as nearly 
all the plants in c^ach 
group have certain 
characteristics in com- 
mon, especially in their 
cultivation, such a 
grouping is useful in 
describing them. 

The botanist's classi- 
fication. — Tlie farmer 
is satisfied to classify 

his plants as f(H-age (Tops, root crops, vegeta})k' crops, and the 
hke. These general groups are suffi(n(Mit for his discussions. 
Some of these classes, how(;ver, in(;lude plants of very unlike 









^^' 


i 


fx 



J'k^ 



>7. - Oat> 



characteristics and ha])its, 



and 



som(;times it is desiral)le to group 



122 



AGRICULTURE 



plants according to similarity of characters. 




The botanist, the 
person who makes 
a very close study 
of plants to find 
the important re- 
semblances among 
them, groups them 
into families. He 
places in a plant 
family all those 
plants that seem 
to be related in 
their general na- 
ture. He gives^ 
these families 
Latin names. 
Thus, in the grass 
family (Latin 
name, Graminece) 
he places timothy, 
blue-grass, or- 
chard-grass, red- 
top, wheat, 
barley, 



rye 
su'gar-cane 



oats, 
corn, 
and 
the 



Fig. 58. — Pea. "Leguminous" plants bear their seeds 
in a certain kind of pod called a "legume." Peas, 
beans, clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, and vetch are examples. 



others. In 
rose family (Rosa- 
cece) he places 
apples, peaches, 
plums, raspber- 
ries, blackberries, 
strawberries, and 
others. In the 
pulse family (Legu- 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 123 

minosoe), peas, beans, clovers, vetches, and alfalfa. In the 
mustard family (Cruciferce), mustard, cabbage, kale, rape, turnip, 
rutabagas, and radishes. In the nightshade family (Solanaceoe) , 
potatoes, tomatoes, egg-plants, peppers, and tobacco. There are 
many other plants in all of these families, some of which are not 
of importance to the farmer. And there are many other plant 
famihes besides these. 

It is of interest to know in what plant family each of our farm 
plants belongs, and what other plants are its relatives. Perhaps 
we should learn, first, whether a plant is a fruit, vegetable, root, 
cereal, or forage plant ; then whether it is an annual, biennial, or 
perennial ; and finally, to what family it belongs. 

Problem 87. How many different kinds of plants are grown in your 
garden? Which produce underground the part that is to be eaten? 
Which produce their product on the surface of the ground? Which are 
vines ? 

Problem 88. Do you think that the squash, the pumpkin, the cucum- 
ber, and the muskmelon belong to the same family? Why? 

Problem 89. What resemblance is there between the potato and the 
tomato? Do the plants look alike in any respect? Are the leaves similar ? 
The flowers? 

Problem 90. Name some of the annual plants on your father's farm ; 
the biennial; the perennial. 

Problem 91. Write a list of all the plants on your father's farm that 
belong in each of the following groups : forage and fodder crops, cereal or 
grain crops, fruit crops, vegetable crops, and root crops. 



CHAPTER XVIII 



DISSEMINATION AND MULTIPLICATION OF PLANTS 



Long before man came to live on the earth, plants had estab- 
lished themselves on its surface. They grew, produced other 

plants, and perished. 
They did not need the in- 
terference of man to plant 
their seeds or their roots,^ 
or to carry them from one 
l)lace to another. Nature 
])rovided them with all 
the means of multiplying 
and spreading that were 
needed. 

Nature's method of dis- 
tributing plants. — Some 
of the i)lants, as the cocoa- 
nut, were encased in snug, 
water-proof jackets, so 
that they could float on 
the surface of streams to 
new regions. Others, as 
the maple seeds, were 
given wings to carry them 
on the wind. The dande- 
lions were provided with 
parachutes so light that 
man could never have kept them from sailing away in the breeze if 

124 




Fig. 59. — One of the ways in which seeds 
are scattered. 



DISSEMINATION AND MULTIPLICATION OF PLANTS 125 



he had tried liis best. The burdock and sti(;k-ti^ht were ^ivc^n 
httle coik'd arms to clutch the fur of a passing- animal and ride 
away to a nc^w home. 

The tumble weed excelled all otluirs in clevcirnciss. In -the 
autumn, when its sec^ds were ripe, it broke off at the surface of 
the ground, and by the wind was sw('})t tumbling- across the fi(!ld, 
leaving a trail of seed wherever 
it passed. The wild carrot, not 
to be outdone, sent its seeds skid- 
dering across the country on the 
smooth snow in winter. The 
touch-me-not provided itself 
with a spring which, when tlus 
ripened pod burst, threw the 
sckhIs far away from the parcmt. 

Other plants were given bright, 
attractive seeds, that tasted good 
to birds, which ate them and 
scattered the seeds in their flight. 
Still other plants simply walked 
away from their parents and took 
up new homes for themselves. 
The white clover and the straw- 
berry reached out their branches 

as far as they could from th(^ j)arent, plant, sent down roots, l>e- 
gan to make their own living as independent plants, and separated 
from their parents. The blu(^-grass reached out in the same way 
underground, and sent up, all about the parent, new phmts which 
soon b(;cam(! independent. 

With s(^ many means of multiplying, it is little wonder that the 
earth is covered with a great variety and tangk; of plants, all 
struggling for place and opportunity to live. 

Man's method. — When man ])egan to live a settled life, he dis- 
covered that he could not depend on Nature to plant his garden, for 




Via. ('){}. — Millet's .s('(!(l-H()wer. 



126 



AGRICULTURE 



she had a way of mixing and tangUng her plants greatly. He de- 
sired to choose his crops, plant them in rows instead of tangles, 
and control them to suit himself. So he collected seeds and roots, 
carried them to the place where he wanted them to grow, and 
planted them. 

The means of multiplying plants which he used varied with the 
different kinds of plants. Some were multipUed, or propagated, 
most readily by the use of seeds, others by the use of roots or other 
parts. The farmer to-day propagates his plants mainly by the use 
of seeds, roots, tubers, cuttings, buds, and grafts. He has found 
that he must employ many methods to get the best results from 
different kinds of plants. 

Propagation by seeds. — A seed is a body produced by a plant, 
which contains a very tiny undeveloped plant called an ''embryo.*^ 




Fig. 61. — Squash seed. 

The embryo is surrounded by food, stored for its use when it shall 
begin to grow. The purpose or use of the seed is to produce a new 
plant like the one from which it came. When placed in the right 
conditions of moisture, temperature, plant-food, and air, the seed 
will sprout and a plant be produced. 

Nearly all farm crops are grown from seeds, especially those that 
are annuals. Wheat, oats, barley, beans, peas, corn, lettuce, rad- 



DISSEMINATION AND MULTIPLICATION OF PLANTS 127 



ishes, and beets are always raised from seeds. This is the sim- 
plest method of multiplying plants, as seeds are usually produced 
in great numbers, are easily collected and stored, and may be 
planted with little difficulty. They may be sown broadcast by 
walking across the field, or may be dropped into holes or trenches ; 
and they may be planted by machines or by hand. 

Propagation by other means. — Some plants, as sweet potatoes 
and sugar-cane, seldom produce seed ; others, as grapes and straw- 
berries, grow faster and better by the use of other parts than seeds ; 
in still others, as apples and potatoes, the seed cannot be depended 
upon to produce a new plant similar to the parent, and the farmer 
cannot be sure what he will get 
if he plants seed. In all of these 
cases he finds it better to use 
parts, or sections, of the parent 
plant for starting his new crop. 
The part that he uses is not the 
same for all plants, for some 
plants reproduce better from one 
part than from another. We 
shall study how these different 
parts are used. 

Roots. — The sweet potato is a 
good example of a plant in which 
the root is used for starting the 
new crop. The edible part of the 
sweet potato is the root. When 
this is planted, it throws up many 
sprouts that have roots of their 
own. When these sprouts are 
pulled and planted, they will pro- 
duce other sweet potato plants. 

Tubers. — A tuber is a greatly enlarged part of a plant, particu- 
larly of the stem that is grown underground. Usually we think 




Fig. 62. — The potato is a storehouse 
of food. When it is set in water, 
shoots grow out from its eyes, or 
buds. 



128 AGRICULTURE 

that the stem of a plant is all above ground. In the case of the 
white, or Irish, potato, part of the stem is below ground. This 
part grows large and forms what we (;all the potato. The potato, 
then, is not really a root, as we may have thought, but is a stem. 
We call it a tuber. The potato plant has other true roots. 

The most familiar farm crop that is multiplied by the use of 
tubers is the j^otato. These tubers may be planted whole, but 
usually it is more economical to cut them and plant pieces having 
about two eyes. These eyes are buds from which new plants 
spring. 

Cuttings. — A cutting is a part of a plant, cut from the parent, 
which is used to j)roduce a new plant. Some plants grow much 
better from cuttings than from seeds. Most house-plants and 
many woody plants raised on the farm are started from cuttings^ 
or slips. 

Cuttings may be made from the stem, from a branch or twig, or 
from a leaf. In starting new grape vines, a short section having 
three buds is cut from the growth of the preceding season. Two of 
the buds are placcHJ b(4ow ground for the formation of roots, leav- 
ing one above ground for the growth of the new vine. With sugar- 
cane, the short s(^ctions of the stalk carrying on(3 or more ])uds are 
laid horizontally in the soil and lightly covered with earth. Cur- 
rants and willows are n^adily started from cuttings. All of these 
form roots from the cut stems and become perfect plants. 

Buds and grafts. — There are other plants that are not usually 
multiplied by the use of seeds, and which do not readily develop 
roots from tiie stem. In some way they must be established on 
the roots of other i)lants. This is accomplished by transferring 
a bud from the plant it is desired to increase to the stem of another 
plant, and inserting it below the bark. Here it will attach itself 
and begin growth as part of the new plant. 

Sonu^times, instead of using a single bud, the farmer will take 
short sections of a l)ranch bearing more than one bud. Such a 
section is called a graft, or scion. It is attached to the plant 



DISSEMINATION AND MULTIPLICATION OF PLANTS 129 

of which it is to })e a part l)y cutting off the stem or branch of the 
latter and inserting the scion in the cut end. 

Buds and grafts always produce the same kind of tree or plant 
as that from which they were taken. Apples, peac^hes, plums, 
pears, and ch(;rri(^s are nearly always grown from buds or grafts. 
They grow on the roots of other plants, and not on roots grown 
by themselves. The budding or grafting is usually done in the 
nursery row while the plant which is to supply the roots, called 
th(^ stock, is very small and only one to three years old. 

Problem 92. If there is a fruit-grower hi your ueighl)orhood, ask him 
to show you how to hud and to graft. Watc^h him cut the bud and the 
scion, and ask liim (luestion.s. 

Problem 93. In winter or spring, cut a section having three buds from 
last year's growth of the grape vine. Place it in a i)ot of moist sand with 
two buds below ground. Wluni the young plant has well started, take it 
out of the pot and see where the roots came from. Set it out near the 
fence in your school yard to grow. 

Problem 9^. If there is a strawberry bed on your father's farm, find 
a plant that has reached out and started another plant. Bring it to 
school. 

Problem 95. Write a list of fiftecMi plants on your farm or in the 
neighborhood, and tell how they are nuiltii)lied. 

Problem 96. How is the common garden g(^rariium nmltiplied? The 
fuchsia? The onion? 

Problem 97. Dig up a potato plant and find the real roots. 



CHAPTER XIX 



ROTATION OF CROPS 



On every farin sevenil different kinds of crops are ^rown. When 
the farmer lias a (U^finite plan by which he moves liis crops from 
one field to another from year to year, so that one crop always 
follows a certain other crop, we say he is rotating his croi)s, or 
is practicing crop rotation ; that is, he is growing his crops in a 
circle or rotation, one after anoth(T, returning to the same field 
with a certain crop every four or five or six years. If he is merely 
growing different kinds without reference to a real system or plan, 
he is practicing what is called diversification. 

What crop rotation is. — Suppose a man has a dairy farm and is 
raising his own hay, corn, and small grain. Let us say that each 
ycnir lie raises the same number of acres of corn and small grain, 
and twice as many acrc^s of hay. He desires to rotate his crops, 
so he divides his farm into four fields of equal size. We may call 
his fields A , B, C, and D. He has decided that he will plant corn 
on land tluit produced grass the last two years, follow the corn with 
small grain, sow grass seed in the grain, then let the grass grow 
for two years before he plows it for corn. How will h(^ rotate his 
crops on his fields? Let us study the following chart and see: — 





Field A 


Field B 


Field C 


Field D 


1912 .... 


Corn 


Hay 


Hay 


Grain 


1913 .... 


(J rain 


('orn 


Hay 


Hay 


1914 : . . . 


Hay 


(5 rain 


Corn 


Hay 


1915 .... 


Hay 


Hay 


(J rain 


Corn 


191() .... 


('orn 


Hay 


Hav 


Grain 


1917 .... 


(J rain 


Corn 


Hay 


Hay 



130 



ROTATION OF C'ROPS 131 

On Field A, in 1912, he will plant com; on Field B, hay; Field 
C, hay; Field D, grain. That gives him equal areas of corn and 
grain and twice as much hay. In 1913, he follows corn with grain 
on Field A, plants his corn on Field B which last year raised hay. 
He leaves Field C in hay for the second year and follows grain on 
Field D with hay. In 1914, he moves his crops all forward to the 
next field, following grain with hay on Field A, following corn with 
grain on Field B, plowing sod for corn on Field C, and allowing 
the hay to remain for the second year on Field D. In 1915, the 
crops move forward again. In 1916, the beginning of the fifth 
year, his rotation has reached its starting point, and each crop has 
returned to the field on which it was grown in 1912. 

It takes four years to complete this rotation. It is a four-year 
or four-course rotation. The fifth year it begins a new round. 
It is a definite plan, or system, which gives the farmer each year 
just what he wants without growing the same crop on the same 
field oftener than once in four years, except in the case of hay, which 
is left purposely for two years. 

Each year half the hay land is plowed. If the grass seed is 
sown with the small grain, it will not grow enough to interfere with 
th(i grain. It takes possession of the ground after the grain has 
been harvested. It will therefore not be necessary to plow the 
grain land after the harvest to plant the grass ; and as only one 
hay field is plowed each year, the farmer will plow half of his farm 
each year instead of all of it. This makes less work. 

This is a simple rotation, which is in common use. Other rota- 
tions may be planned for more fields, more crops, or for a greater 
or less number of years. The farmer may work out nearly any- 
thing he desires. But he should always have a regular plan, or 
system. 

Why crops are rotated. — In experiments at Rothansted, Eng- 
land, wheat was grown on the same land for sixty-two years in 
succession. At the end of that time the yield per acre was only 
one fourth as much as for wheat grown on similar land for fifty- 



132 AGRICULTURE 

two years as part of a four-year rotation. The rotation was re- 
sponsible for the great difference in yield. 

Let us see what benefit will come from using the four-year corn, 
small grain, and hay rotation given on page 130. Corn is tilled 
or cultivated between the rows when it is growing. This loosens 
the soil, helps to improve the texture, and by admitting air aids 
in making plant-food available. It also destroys weeds. When 
the grain is sown it occupies all of the land closely and helps to 
choke out many weeds. It uses the plant-food in the soil in differ- 
ent proportions from the corn and helps to even up the demand. 
When grass is planted, clover is sown with the timothy. Clover 
is a leguminous plant, and therefore, as we have learned, makes 
the soil richer. The hay crop uses the plant-foods in still different 
proportions, so that the demand is further evened up. Then when^ 
the sod is plowed under it adds a great deal of vegetable matter 
to the soil to be made into humus. Stirring the soil for the corn 
which follows helps to decay this vegetable matter. 

We learned in Chapter XV the many benefits that come from 
plowing vegetable matter into the soil. If corn only, or wheat 
only, were grown, there would be very little vegetable matter 
added, and the soil would suffer from need of it. 

Chess and cockle are weeds that grow with wheat and become 
very destructive when land is constantly in wheat. They are 
destroyed by the grass crop followed by clean or constant tillage 
such as is given for the corn. 

When one crop is grown constantly on the same field, it seems 
to injure the soil in some way. This injury is avoided when crops 
are regularly changed. Furthermore, some plants have short 
roots and take all of their plant-food from near the surface of the 
soil, while others have long roots that reach deep into the soil in 
search of food and moisture. Wheat, radishes, and onions are 
short-rooted and take their food from the first six inches of soil. 
Alfalfa may send its roots as far down as thirty feet. 

Planning a rotation system. — The farmer will choose a rotation 



ROTATION OF CROPS 133 

that meets the particular needs on his farm, His next door neigh- 
bor may have a very different rotation. If he is raising stock, 
his rotation will be planned to include the crops needed for feed- 
ing. If he is a grain-farmer, and desires to grow as much grain 
as possible, he will have a different rotation. If the soil is poor, 
the rotation will include the frequent use of leguminous crops 
and the plowing under of green-manures to improve it. If the 
farm has sandy soil, a different system must be planned from 
that used for clay soil. One rotation is useful in a^cool, moist 
climate, another in a hot, dry climate. 

In all of these cases, the farmer will plan his rotation so that 
each crop will leave the land in the best condition for the one 
that is to follow. Wheat and rye leave the land in good, smooth 
condition for hay, and consequently hay often follows wheat or rye 
in the rotation. 

The farmer will also plan his rotation so that his farm help will 
be used to the best advantage throughout the year. He mil 
plan to distribute his planting and his harvesting so that it will 
not all come at one time and be more than his men can do. 

When all of these conditions have been carefully considered, 
the farmer will try to plan a rotation that will include a ^' money 
crop," that is, one that will go directly to market; a clean-tilled 
crop, or one that is tilled between the rows during the growing 
season ; a hay or straw crop ; a leguminous or soil-improving 
crop. Such a rotation will keep the land rich and will not allow 
weeds to grow. In the rotation on page 130, the small grain may 
be the '^ money crop," the corn is the clean-tilled crop, and clover, 
in the hay, is the leguminous crop. The hay and corn, and per- 
haps some of the small grain, will be fed on the farm. 

If the farmer is raising a special crop, as a gardener near a large 
city is likely to do, and cannot practice crop rotation to any 
extent, he must buy considerable fertilizer and stable manure to 
keep his land in good condition. 

History of crop rotation. — When settlers come into a new 



134 AGRICULTURE 

country and find the land rich, they are not likely to rotate their 
crops with any special care. As long as the land is fertile, they 
are not concerned as to how they shall keep it so. As soon as 
one piece becomes poor from unwise farming it is deserted and 
another piece taken up to be ruined in the same way. It is only 
when all the land becomes poor that they begin to think of the 
importance of a careful system of farming. 

This is just what took place in America. George Washington, 
who was a thoughtful farmer as well as a great statesman, became 
alarmed at the carelessness of the farmers about him in his day. 
He saw that they were robbing their land of fertility by their 
lack of careful system. In 1787, he wrote the following letter 
to his friend Arthur Young in England : — 

'' Before I undertake to give the information you request, 
respecting the arrangements of farms in this neighbourhood, &c, 
I must observe that there is, perhaps, scarcely any part of America, 
where farming has been less attended to than in this State (Vir- 
ginia). The cultivation of tobacco has been almost the sole object 
with men of landed property, and consequently a regular course 
of crops have never been in view. The general custom has been, 
first to raise a crop of Indian corn (maize), which, according to 
the mode of cultivation, is a good preparation for wheat ; then a 
crop of wheat ; after which the ground is respited (except from 
weeds, and every trash that can contribute to its foulness) for 
about eighteen months ; and so on, alternately, without any 
dressing, till the land is exhausted ; when it is turned out, with- 
out being sown with grass-seeds, or reeds, or any method taken 
to restore it ; and another piece is ruined in the same manner. 
No more cattle is raised than can be supported by lowland meadows, 
swamps, &c., and the tops and blades of Indian corn ; as very few 
persons have attended to sowing grasses, and connecting cattle 
with their crops. The Indian corn is the chief support of the 
labourers and horses. Our lands, as I mentioned in my first letter 
to you, were originally very good ; but use, and abuse, have made 
them quite otherwise. 



ROTATION OF CROPS 135 

'' The above is the mode of cultivation which has been generally 
pursued here, but the system of husbandry which has been found 
so beneficial in England, and which must be greatly promoted by 
your valuable Annals, is now gaining ground. There are several 
(among which I may class myself), who are endeavouring to get 
into your regular and systematic course of cropping, as fast as 
the nature of the business will admit ; so that I hope in the course 
of a few years, we shall fnake a more respectable figure as farmers 
than we have hitherto done." 

In Washington's time the land was ^' respited," or rested, or 
allowed to remain idle after it had been injured by careless farm- 
ing. To-day the best farmers do not '' rest " land to improve 
it; they practice crop rotation, good tillage, and the use of fer- 
tilizers and manures, and keep the land in good condition. 

Crop rotation has become a regular practice on farms all over 
this country, and hundreds of different rotations are in use. 
Americans are becoming better farmers. 

Problem 98. Do all the farmers in your neighborhood raise large crops ? 
If one raises specially large crops, ask him to tell how he does it, what 
fertilizers he uses, and what is his rotation of crops. 

Problem 99. Explain what kind of rotation is used on your father's 
farm, and why it is used. Which is the money crop ? Which is the clean- 
tilled crop ? Which is the leguminous crop ? Are all of the fields included 
in the rotation ? If not, are the crops as good on those not in the rotation ? 

Problem 100. How often are the meadows plowed on your farm? 
What is planted after the meadow? Why? Do the farmers' that keep 
their land in hay for two or three years get larger crops than those who 
keep it in hay for five or six years ? At haying time, compare a field that 
is in hay for the second year with one which has been in hay for several 
years. Decide whether it pays to rotate the hay crop. 

Problem 101. If your father does not rotate his crops, see whether you 
can plan a rotation for him. Write out a rotation, explaining why you 
place the crops in certain order. Ask your teacher to tell you whether 
it is a good rotation. 

Problem 102. Suppose a farmer raises potatoes, rye, and hay to sell. 
What should be his rotation? Why? 



CHAPTER XX 

INDIAN CORN 

As far back as we can go in the history of man, we find that he 
depended on corn for much of his food supply. In many places 
in the Bible we read about the cornfields. In the book of Genesis 
it is said that '' Joseph gathered corn as the sand of the sea, very 
much, until he left numbering; for it was without number." 
Many centuries later it is written that Jesus and His disciples 
passed '' through the cornfields." 

Maize. — But this was not the same kind of corn that is called 
by that name in America to-day, and which was not known until 
after the discovery of America. The name " corn " has been given 
to several different grains by different peoples in various parts of 
the world. In the book of Ruth we read that Ruth asked 'Ho go 
to the field and glean ears of corn ... so she gleaned in the field 
until even, and beat out what she had gleaned ; and it was about 
an ephah (a little more than a bushel) of barley." In the northern 
part of Europe, corn is the name given to rye ; in England, corn 
means wheat ; in Scotland, a field of corn is understood to be a field 
of oats. Thus we see that the name corn is applied to all of the 
grains. The original meaning of corn was a grain or hard seed, 
and all of these plants have been called corn just as we now call 
them all grains. 

We speak of these grains also as cereal grains, or cereals. The 
word cereal comes from Ceres, the name of the goddess of agricul- 
ture, worshipped by the Romans over two thousand years ago. 
Ceres watched especially over the grains. 

1.36 



INDIAN CORN 137 

The corn of America originated in southern Mexico and was ex- 
tensively grown there centuries before the discovery of America. 
As the Romans brought to Ceres the first fruits of their grain har- 
vest, so the native Nahuas of old Mexico sacrificed the first fruits 
of their cornfields to Centoatl, their goddess of maize, or corn. 
Long before Columbus landed in America, the plant had spread 
into the temperate regions of both North and South America. 
When Columbus reached the West Indies, he was given by the 
natives a bread made from a grain called mahiz. He used this 
name in his letters to Spain, and from it has come our word maize, 
commonly apphed to corn. In a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella, 
dated May 30, 1498, speaking of his brother, Columbus says, 
" During a journey in the interior he found a dense population 
entirely agricultural, and at one place passed through eighteen 
miles of cornfields.'' 

In 1519, Cortez, on his march to the city of Mexico, passed 
" amid flourishing fields of maize." In 1539, De Soto, in Florida, 
speaks of Indian villages surrounded by extensive fields of corn. 
In 1680, La Salle found stores of corn in Illinois that the Indians 
had placed underground for seed and food supply. 

Place of maize in American agriculture. — The cultivation of 
corn, Indian corn as it was called, was the chief dependence of the 
early colonists as it had been of the Indians before them. It was 
already well established and grew luxuriantly. The settlers learned 
from the Indians how to prepare the corn for food. Roger Wil- 
liams, in speaking of the forms in which corn was used for food 
in New England, sa3^s, " Samp (from the Indian name for the dish, 
nasaump) is the Indian corne, beaten and boiled, and eaten hot or 
cold with milke or butter, which are mercies beyond the native's 
plaine water, and is a dish exceeding wholesome for English bodies." 

From colonial days to the present, corn has held an important 
place in American agriculture. To-day it is the most important 
American crop. It can be grown in nearly every part of the conti- 
nent. It has become adapted to all the various climates from 



138 AGRICULTURE 

Canada to the tropics. For the short seasons of the north there 
are varieties that ripen in 70 or 80 days and grow but three or four 
feet tall. In southern United States, Mexico, Central America, 
and South America, there are varieties that grow to a height of 
twenty feet or more and require six months in which to complete 
their growth. Corn fits well into crop rotation systems, and this 
has led to its being grown in regions where a few years ago it was 
not an important crop. 

The corn or maize plant. — Let us go out into a field of standing 
corn, or bring a corn plant into the schoolroom and study it. We 
should know that the worst foe of the corn plant is wind, and it has 
been obliged to develop certain forms of stalk, leaf, and root to 
enable it to withstand this foe. If we cut a corn stalk across, we 
find that it is a strong cylinder with a pithy center. It is strength- 
ened at short intervals by hard nodes, or joints. If all of the stalk 
were as compact and rigid as the nodes, it would break in the wind 
instead of bending. As it is, the stalk is elastic, and will bend far 
over without breaking. The nodes are near together at the bot- 
tom, thus giving strength to the base ; they are farther apart at 
the top, where the wind strikes and where the stalk must bow 
rather than break. 

The corn leaf comes from the stalk at a node. Its base clasps the 
stalk completely for some distance, thus making the latter stronger. 
Just where the leaf bends away from the stem is a small growth, 
which fits tightly around the stalk and is called the rain-guard 
because it prevents rain from seeping down between the stalk and 
the clasping leaf, where dampness would harbor destructive fungi. 

The structure of the corn leaf is especially adapted to escape inj ury 
from the wind. The strong veins are parallel and there is a flexible 
but strong midrib at the center. The most severe wind storm in- 
j ures only the tips of the leaves. The edges of the leaf are ruffled ; 
this allows a sidewise movement without breaking the margins. 

The true roots of the corn plant, which begin their development 
from the planted seed, penetrate the soil rather deeply, but they are 



INDIAN CORN 



139 



hardly able to hold firm a stalk so slender and tall as that of the 
corn plant when the wind blows fiercely against it. Hence, all 
about the base of the stalk are certain roots, which we call brace- 
roots, the office of which is to hold the stalk erect. 

Blossoms. — Each fertile cornstalk has two kinds of blossoms. 
Those that bear the pollen appear at the tip of the stalk ; we call 
them corn '' tassels." The other flowers are 
those that develop the seed and are the pistil- 
late flowers, which we call the ears of corn. 
They consist of many small white ovules set 
on a central stalk or cob. Each ovule has a 
long style, which we call the corn silk. Very 
deUcately are these pistillate flowers of the corn 
wrapped about with leaves, which are changed 
to the soft protective clothing called the 
" husks." Each white ovule thrusts its 
thread of silk upward until its tip pushes out 
beyond thetop of the husks, and each silk is 
tipped with a stigma, which is ready to re- 
ceive the pollen that falls upon it from the tas- 
sels of its own stalk or is blown upon it from 
the tassels of other corn plants. 

If one of these ovules fails to receive pollen 
at the tip of its long, silken st^^e, it does not 
develop into a kernel of corn, and the ear will 
then be imperfect. Such undeveloped kernels 
we say are " blasted." These ovules are set 
upon the stem or " cob " in twin rows ; thus 
each row is double, being made up of pairs of 
ovules. If the different varieties of corn are 
planted one near another, the pollen from one 
kind may be 'carried by the wind over to the ears of the other 
kinds, and the result will be a mixture of two or more varieties on 
the same cob. 




Fig. 63.— a well- 
shaped ear of yellow 
dent corn. 



140 AGRICULTURE 

Ears. — The ears are borne at the joints or nodes; and where 
the ear presses against it, the stalk is grooved to hold it more snugly. 
The husks show plainly that they are modified leaves, in the fol- 
lowing ways : The husk has the same structure as the leaf ; 
the outside husks are green and, therefore, do the work of leaves. 
The husk often changes to leaf-shape at the tip of the ear, thus 
showing that the husk itself is that part of the leaf which normally 
clasps the stalk. As a matter of fact, the ear of corn is on a branch 




Fig. 64. — The husks often change to leaf-shapes, showing that they are modified 

leaves. 

stalk, which has been much shortened so that the nodes are 
very close together, and the leaves, therefore, come off ch^se 
together. 

By stripping the husks back, one by one, from the outside stiff 
green leaf structure to the inner stalk, the papery wrapping for 
the seed may be seen in all its stages. 



INDIAN CORN 



141 



Kinds of corn. — There are eight distinct kinds, or " species," 
of corn. They differ from one another in certain important char- 
acteristics. They are, first, a wild form, sometimes found in 
Mexico ; second, pod corn, in which each kernel is inclosed in a 




Fig. 65. — C( 



separate pod or husk ; third, popcorn ; fourth, flint corn, a hard 
smooth corn, generally yellow in color, grown in New England and 
other northern states ; fifth, dent corn, which has a dent or de- 
pression in the large end, is yellow or white in color, and is grown 



142 AGRICULTURE 

in both the north and the south ; sixth, soft corn, not grown in 
North America; seventh, sweet corn, having a horny and more 
or less crinkled appearance, used for table purposes ; eighth, starchy 
sweet corn. There are many varieties of most of these classes, 
so that there are wide differences in the types of corn grown in 
different places. 

The culture of corn. — The seed for planting should be chosen 
the fall before from the standing corn, for it is important that the 
seed come from thrifty stalks that yield the largest amount of 
corn. The ears should be of good length, strong, and well filled 
at tip and butt. A few kernels from each ear of the seed corn 
should be tested to be sure it will sprout vigorously. We shall 
learn how to test seed in Chapter XXXI. 

The soil should be the most fertile on the farm. Sod land which^ 
grew clover the preceding year, and which received a dressing of 
barnyard manure during the winter or early spring, is ideal. It 
should be plowed early, and harrowed repeatedly until the seed- 
bed is fine and smooth. 

Planting should be delayed until the weather is warm all day 
long. If it is to be done by hand, furrows should be made across 
the field, generally in its longest direction, about three and one half 
feet apart. The corn will be planted in hills, three kernels in a 
hill. In the East, where corn is thinned after the plants are up, 
as many as five seeds to the hill may be planted. For large 
varieties the hills should be three and one half feet apart in the 
row, and for small varieties a shorter distance. The seed is covered 
with fine soil one or one and a half inches deep. If a horse-drawn 
corn planter is used, it will not be necessary to make the furrows. 

A few days after planting, the weeder should be run over the 
field to stir the surface and destroy the sprouting weeds. About 
a week after the corn shoots can be plainly seen in the rows, the 
first cultivation should be given. This should be fairly deep. 
The later ones may be less deep. Frequent cultivation benefits 
corn, and four or more cultivations should be given during the 



INDIAN CORN 



143 




Fig. 66. — Cutting corn with a harvester that has an at- 
tachment to carry the stalks until a bundle is formed. 



growing season. 

The surface 

should be left 

fine and nearly 

level. The hoe 

must be used to 

keep the weeds 

out of the rows. 
Harvesting. — 

Harvest time is 

at hand when 

the lower leaves 

on the stalks be- 
gin to die and 

many of the 

husks are becoming dry. The stalks may be cut by hand or with 

a corn harvester. About sixty hills may be gathered into one 

shock and the tops bound together to make the shock stand. 

If the corn is 
heavy, smaller 
shocks should 
be made. If 
they are too 
large, the corn 
on the inside 
will not ciire 
well. If the 
weather is 
good, the corn 
will be cured 
in six weeks. 

After the 
ears have 

Fig. 67, — A machine for husking and shredding corn at work. been husked, 




144 AGRICULTURE 

the stalks should again be bound together and stored under 
cover for winter use. If the fodder is to be fed to stock, it should 
not be left in the field during the late fall and winter. If the fod- 
der is not to be fed, it is better to leave the ears on the stalks until 
the latter are thoroughly dry. The ears, after husking, should 
be stored where air can circulate about them, and where they will 
be free from rats and mice. 

The silo. — The silo is a receptacle in which green forage 
plants are stored in quantity in such a way that they will re- 
main green and juicy, or suculent, and wholesome. It is much 
used on stock farms to preserve green corn, clover, alfalfa, and 
other forage plants, so that in winter the cattle may have fresh 
food. Corn is the principal crop preserved in this way. 

The first silo in Europe was a stack of wet grass covered with 
earth. In America, the first ones were pits in the earth. Most of 
these m use to-day are wood or cement structures built above ground 
and adjoining or part of the cattle stables. They are usually 
built in the shape of a cyhnder, but may occasionally be square. 

When the corn is grown for the silo, it is not planted in hills, 
but the seed is sown so as to have a stalk about every seven 
inches in each row, the rows being three and one half feet apart. 
It is harvested for the silo when the lower leaves are turning yel- 
low, and when the kernels begin to be hard and no milk comes out 
of them when- they are mashed. 

Enemies. — Crows and blackbirds are the enemies of the young 
corn plant. They must be frightened away from the field until 
the corn is too large for them to pull it up. Cutworms lurk about 
the hills and cut off the stalks. Coating the kernels of seed corn 
with coal tar before planting will drive away some of the enemies 
after it has been placed in the ground. 

Uses. — Although corn is produced in America much more ex- 
tensively than other grains, very little is exported. It is nearly all 
used on the farms where it is produced to fatten cattle and hogs for 
market. 



INDIAN CORN 145 

Aside from the use of the fodder, grain, and meal for feeding, 
there are many other corn products of commercial value. The 
silks are used in the making of filters ; the husks for the making of 
mattresses ; the pith for the packing of coffer-dams of battle- 
ships ; the outer parts of the stalk for the making of varnish and 
for paper ; the cobs for corn-cob pipes. An oil used in the arts is 
extracted from the seed germs. Starch and alcohol are made from 
corn. There are many other products that might be mentioned. 
One factory makes forty-two different corn products. 

Problem 103. Do the roots of the corn plant penetrate deep into the 
soil? Why? Describe the brace-roots. How do they help the plant 
to stand firm against the force of the wind ? How far up the stem do the 
brace-roots come off? 

Problem 104-. Where on the stalk are the ears borne ? How many 
ears on a stalk? After removing the husks carefully note whether there 
is a thread of corn silk for every kernel. How many rows of kernels are 
there on the ear? Are there always an even number of rows? 

Problem 105. How many varieties of corn are grown in your locality? 
What is each kind grown for ? Are all of the varieties planted in the same 
way? Describe the differences. Is it the most important crop in your 
region ? 

Problem 106. For what is the corn raised on your father's farm used? 
Is any of it shipped away ? Where does it go ? What becomes of it ? 

Problem 107. Who grows the best corn in the locality? How does 
he fit his land ? What crop precedes corn in his rotation ? How does he 
secure his seed ? How often does he cultivate the growing crop ? 



CHAPTER XXI 

WHEAT 

Wheat has held a leading place in the food supply of all the great- 
est nations of the world since the beginning of history. It has been 
grown so long and in so many different countries that there is diffi- 
culty in determining where it originated. Monuments much more 
ancient than the Hebrew Scriptures show that it was an important 
plant at the time they were built. The earliest Lake Dwellers 
in western Switzerland cultivated a small-grained variety of w^hgat^ 
The ancient Egyptians and Greeks believed that it had been origi- 
nated by some of theii* deities, among them Demeter (Latin, 
Ceres), the goddess of agriculture. It was grown by the Chinese at 
least 2700 years B.C., and was considered by them a direct gift 
from Heaven. 

Western Asia, especially the valley of the Euphrates, is supposed 
to have been the original home of this plant. A wild grass native 
to the Mediterranean region at the present time bears a resem- 
blance to the wheat plant. 

Wheat in America. — It is believed that wheat was not known in 
America before its discovery by Columbus. Within two weeks 
after the arrival of the first colonists at Jamestown, in 1607, this 
crop was sown on land that had been cleared by felHng timber for 
the fort. In the year following, additional land was cleared and 
planted. The first attempts were not especially successful, but 
the colonists persisted and from year to year planted wheat in in- 
creasing quantities. The crop was harvested with the reap hook 
and the sickle and was trodden out by horses and oxen instead of 
being threshed with a flail. 

As early as 1626 wheat was cultivated by the Dutch in New York. 

146 



WHEAT 147 

It held a leading place in the middle colonies and was among the 
very few crops exported. The Pennsylvania millers gained a wide 
reputation for the excellence of their flour. 

Wheat was sown at Plymouth in 1621. It did not become an 
important crop in New England during colonial times. In 1838, 
great efforts were made to encourage the growing of it, and that 
year the Massachusetts legislature offered a bounty on wheat, 
which was paid to 3642 farmers on 108,570 bushels. 

Production. — • Wheat is now grown in nearly all civilized coun- 
tries. Vast areas are planted in Russia, India, France, Austria- 
Hungary, Argentina, Canada, and the United States. Europe 
produces more wheat than any other continent, raising nearly twice 
as much as North and South America together. In 1909, the total 
product for the world was estimated as 3,624,418,000 bushels, of 
which 911,933,000 bushels were grown in North America. 

Wheat-growing has followed the westward movement of popu- 
lation in the United States. In 1850, New York was one of the 
leading wheat-producing states. At that time, the four states which 
now produce the most wheat were, with the exception of Ohio, 
still unsettled. Now New York raises very 
little wheat. Ohio, southern Wisconsin and 
northern Illinois, Minnesota, North Dakota, 
and Kansas have each, in turn, led in the 
production of this crop. Western Canada 
has recently become a great wheat-grow- 
ing region. 

The wheat plant. — Let us bring a few 
wheat plants to school or, better still, go out \J. 

to a field of ripening wheat, and study the Fig. 68. — The wheat flower, 
habits of this plant. We shall find that, JwroTftsTh^e'eanthers."'^ 
unlike the corn stalk, the wheat stalk is 

hollow, although occasionally it may contain more or less pith. 
W^e may wonder how the hollow stem is able to support the 
heavy head as it is swayed in the wind. It is because a hollow 




148 



AGRICULTURE 



tube is very much stronger than a solid C34inder made from 
the same amount of material. The nodes, which are solid joints, 

support the sides of the tube and 
keep it from collapsing. 

We see that the nodes are nearer 
together at the base. This is be- 
cause there is greater strain here. 
The walls of the stem become 
thicker toward the base for the 
same reason. Wheat grows rap- 
idly because each section of the 
stem, between the nodes, lengthens 
at the same time ; and the stem 
elongates at the tip, also, so that 
there is growth throughout its en- 
tire length at one time. 

When the seed germinates, it 
throws out three temporary roots 
which gather moisture for the 
young plant. As the stalk grows 
nodes are formed close together 
on it. Additional roots spring 
from each node. The permanent 
roots are formed near the surface 
of the ground. They branch out- 
ward and downward and may 
sometimes reach a depth of four 
feet or more. 

If wheat is planted in the fall, 
the stalks do not rise above the 
crown of leaves produced at the 
surface of the ground until after winter is past. The leaves, or 
blades, that cover the winter wheat-field hke a mat, are snugly 
protecting the roots from the cold. 




Fig. 69. — a head, a spikelet, and a 
grain of a bearded wheat. 



WHEAT 149 

The head or '' spike " gradually develops as the plant grows tall. 
It is the flowering part, and the place where the fruit or grain is 
to be produced. When it ripens, the leaves at the surface of the 
ground, together with those at each node, wither and fall, and 
the whole plant turns a golden yellow color. 

A habit of importance to the farmer is the tendency of the 
wheat plant to tiller or stool ; that is, to throw up additional 
stalks from the same seed. From twenty to as many as one hun- 
dred stalks may spring from one seed. Each stalk develops its 
own roots, so that it is soon independent of those with which it 
is associated. Seed that tillers heavily will, therefore, make the 
growth in the field much more dense ; it will give a heavy '' stand " 
of wheat. 

Kinds of wheat. — The different kinds of wheat in America 
may be divided into classes according to where they are grown 
and whether they produce hard or soft grains. Thus we have : — 

(1) The soft winter wheat, grown chiefly in New England and 
the middle states. 

(2) The semi-hard winter wheat, grown in the north central 
states. 

(3) Hard winter wheat, grown in parts of the middle plains 
states. 

(4) Soft spring wheat, grown on the Pacific coast. 

(5) Hard spring wheat, grown in the upper Mississippi River 
basin. 

(6) The durum or macaroni wheat, grown in the Great Plains 
states. 

Often we call them all either winter wheat or spring wheat, 
meaning by winter wheat that which is sown in the fall and is 
in the ground over winter, and by spring wheat that which is 
sown in the spring and harvested in the fall. 

Culture. — Wheat will grow on a great variety of soils, but 
seems to do best on a light clay. The land that is to be used for 
winter wheat should be plowed as early in the preceding season 



150 



AGRICULTURE 



as possible so that it may be made fine and be able to absorb 
moisture during the summer. The land that is to be used for 
spring wheat should be plowed the fall preceding or early in the 
spring. In either case the surface must be made fine and loose to 
receive the small seeds. 

If wheat follows corn in the rotation, the land should receive 
ten to thirty loads of barnyard manure before it is plowed for the 
wheat. A fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash is valuable, and may be applied after the land has 
been prepared. 

Wheat should never be grown on the same land year after year, 
or the soil will become too poor to grow good crops. It should 
always be grown in a rotation. It commonly follows corn, oats, 
or potatoes. 

The winter wheat should be planted early enough in the fall 
for the young plants to make sufficient growth to be able to with- 
stand the cold of winter. The spring wheat may be planted early, 
as wheat seed will germinate and grow in cool temperatures. 

The grower should be very careful to choose good seed. Six 
to eight pecks should be sown to the acre, and the seed should be 

planted one to three inches 
deep, depending on the con- 
dition of the soil. The 
lighter and looser the soil 
the greater the depth. 
Wheat is not ordinarily cul- 
tivated after the seed has 
been planted. 

Harvesting. — The wheat 

harvest extends over five 

months. It begins in May 

in Texas, moves gradually 

northward through the summer months, and may continue as 

late as September or October in North Dakota and Washington , 




Fig. 70. — The grain cradle. 



WHEAT 



151 



For centuries, wheat was harvested with the sickle and the 
cradle, and these tools are still used in some countries. To harvest 
the great American wheat crop, machines have been devised to 
do all of the work on a large scale. It is scarcely necessary for the 




Fig. 71. 



The old way of harvesting grain crops, still occasionally in 
use on small areas. 



hand to touch the grain in the entire harvesting process. The 
self-binder is used extensively. It cuts and binds the wheat into 
bundles. On some of the large grain farms in the western part of 
the United States there are as many as fifty self -binding harvesters, 
and as much as six hundred acres of grain are cut in a single 
day. 



152 



AGRICULTURE 




WHEAT 



153 







i. ' LMlimmL'id£ ' *^^ ^ 



The greatest labor-saving machine is the combined harvester 
and thresher used in the Pacific coast states. It is drawn by 20 
to 30 horses, or a 
steam traction engine, 
and will cut 60 to 100 
acres of wheat in a 
day. This machine 
cuts the wheat, 
threshes, cleans, and 
bags the grain, and 
carries the sacks until 
it has enough to make 
a pile before they are 
dumped. 

Uses. — Most of 
the wheat grown in 
America is made into 



11 -* 't! 



„, ■ . ~ °*at..A 



«iL^: 



•^ / 



Fig. 73. — View of the interior of a grain warehouse 
on the Pacifif coast, showing the grain in bags. 



flour for bread-making or is used in the manufacture of breakfast 
foods. The grain, either whole or ground, is a stock food. Wheat 




wheat growing sections in Idaho. 



154 AGRICULTURE 

bran and wheat middlings, other connnon cattle foods, are ob- 
tained from the manufacture of flour. Macaroni is made from 
durum wheat. Starch made from thc^ wheat kernel is nmch used 
as a material for paste or sizing. 

The straw is used for feeding or for bedding cattle. When 
traction engines are employed to harvest the crop, the straw is 
burned to make the steam. Wheat straw is also used to make 
fine straw hats and bonnets. 

Problem lOH. How important is the culture of wheat in your locality? 
Why? 

Problem U)!). flow nuiiiy acres of wheat are grown on your father's 
farm ? What is the largest acreage on a farm in your locality ? What is 
the average yield per acre? I3o you know what the average yield per 
acre is for the United States? Do the farmers in your locality help to 
raise or lower the average? ^--^ 

Problem 110. What does wlunit follow in the rotation on the farms in 
your locality ? What follows wheat ? Is the rotation a good one ? Why ? 

Problem lit. What is done with the wheat raised in your locality? 
If it is shipped away, what becomes of it? 

Problem 1V2. Make a list of the kinds of foods uscmI on our tables that 
are made from wheat or its i)roducts. 

Problem 113. Compare a wheat ])lant and a corn i)lant, and ex- 
plain in what ways they are similar. Is there any similarity in the roots? 
In the stems ? In the way the leaves clasp the stems ? In the arrange- 
ments of the nodes on the stem ? In the shape of the leaves ? In the 
flower ])arts ? 

Problem 11 4. Write a short essay, telling how wheat is grown in your 
locality : when it is planted, how the soil is i)repared, how it is fertilized, 
how the seed is sown, how the crop is harvested, and what becomes of it. 

Problem 115. How many kinds of wheat do you know? How do 
you tell them apart ?' 

Problem. 116. Can you tell the dift'erence in May between a field of 
oats, wheat, and rye? How? 

Problem 117. In what ways is wheat used on the farm? What is 
done with the straw? 



CHAPTER XXII 

GRASSES MEADOWS AND PASTURES 

In the story of the Creation we read that God commanded the 
earth to " bring forth grass." Grasses have covered the face of the 
earth since the time that vegetation became possible. Before 
tillage began, grasses occupied the land. 




Fig. 75. — A field of rice before the water has been drawn off. 

Grasses are of almost endless variety, and are grown from the 
hottest tropical regions to the frozen north and south. They vary 
in size from dehcate moss-like plants less than an inch high to the 
gigantic bamboos 100 feet or more in height. They are adapted 

155 



156 



AGRICULTURE 



to all sorts of conditions : dry, infertile soils, rich, moist soils, 
marshes, stagnant pools, slow-running streams, rocky hillsides,^or 
sandy sea-shores. 

Native grasses. — Every country has great areas of native or 
unsown grasses, which occupy unbroken or wild land. Perhaps 
you can find small areas of '' volunteer " or unsown grass-land in 
your own locality. The native grasses are of great importance, 
for they not only supply pasture and forage in many cases, but also 







■fc^^ -*3*flJHStt*»v5-. 












Fig. 76. — A stretch of native, or wild, pasture land in Nevada. 



keep the land from washing and blowing. While a large part of 
the native grasses are not useful to the farmer, yet many of them 
are, as we shall see. 

In the Great Plains region there still remain immense tracts of 
open prairie from which are cut large quantities of native hay. In 
the Rocky Mountain states millions of cattle, sheep, and horses 
live on the native grasses. It is said that 300,000 to 500,000 
sheep alone pass the winter on the Red Desert of Wyoming. 

In the Great Basin, extending from Oregon and Idaho to north- 
ern Arizona and westward to the Sierra Nevada Mountains, the 
stock roam in the hills during the summer, and in the autumn are 
t'jrned into the meadows after the native hay has been stacked. 



GRASSES — MEADOWS AND PASTURES 



157 



On the Pacific slope are other extensive native feeding grounds 
bearing hundreds of varieties of wild grasses. 

Cultivated grasses. — Throughout most of America farmers 
cannot depend largely on native grasses. They must grow greater 
quantities to the acre, and must include the grass-land in their ro- 
tation systems. Also, they desire to choose varieties that will be 
most valuable to them. We have therefore a long list of cultivated 
grasses which are adapted to various climates and soils. Some of 




Fig. 77. — Drawing hay on solid-wheel wagon. 

them are most useful in meadows for cutting as hay, and others in 
pastures for grazing. 

Many of the hay plants are not true grasses, but are legumes. 
Clover, alfalfa, and cowpeas are legumes. They are used for hay 
and forage, just as are the real grasses, but they are not true 
grasses. They belong to a different family of plants. 

In northeastern United States, extending as far south as Vir- 
ginia and westward to Kansas and North Dakota, timothy and red 
clover furnish most of the hay, and Kentucky blue-grass (also 
called June-grass) a large part of the pasture. 

Farther south, in the cotton-belt, the most important hay plant 
is cowpeas, which is a legume. Bermuda-grass is the best pasture 



158 AGRICULTURE 

plant. Johnson-grass and Bermuda-grass are grown for hay and 
pasture throughout this section. Both spread rapidly and are hard 
to get rid of after they have once been grown, so that they are 
looked upon as weeds. 

On the gulf coast, crab-grass, beggarweed, Mexican clover, and 
carpet-grass supply most of the hay and pasture. In the Plains 
region, brome-grass is the most important hay and pasture plant, 
while millet and sorghum are valuable for rough forage. In the 
Rocky Mountain states, alfalfa (a legume) has first place, with 
timothy, orchard-grass, and clover of less importance. On the 
Pacific coast, alfalfa outranks all other hay plants. 

In each section of the country, therefore, some hay plants are of 
much more value than others. An almost endless number of other 
grasses are grown, however. Taking the country as a whole^^^ 
timothy is the leading hay plant and blue-grass the leading pasture 
plant. 

Meadows. — By the word meadow we mean land on which 
grass is grown to be cut for hay. The land may be kept perma- 
nently in grass, or it may be plowed every two, three, or four years 
and a new meadow seeded on another piece of land. 

Since the grass in the meadow is to be cut for hay, all of the plants 
should be at their best at the same time. The plants should also 
grow to maturity quickly. The farmer has to consider these 
points in choosing seed for his meadows. If the meadows are to 
be plowed frequently, the seed must not be very costly. One 
reason why timothy is so widely grown as a hay plant is that its seed 
is cheap. 

Pastures. — By the word pasture we mean land on which grass 
is grown for grazing by live-stock. Pasture may be either perma- 
nent or temporary. When it is temporary, it is usually a meadow 
from which two or more crops of hay have been cut. 

Since pasture is used for many months in the year, the grasses in 
it should not all mature at the same time. For this reason, usually 
a mixture of several kinds of grass seed are planted. Different 



GRASSES — MEADOWS AND PASTURES 



159 



plants occupy the ground in different ways, and when more than 
one kind is planted, the land is used to better advantage. Then, 
too, if the season is unfavorable for one kind, it may be more 
favorable for some other kind. The farmer will choose the grasses 
which yield the largest crops in his locality and which his animals like. 




Pasture on an eastern farm. 



Timothy. — Timothy is the best known grass in the United 
States. It gets its name from Timothy Hansen, who took the 
grass from New York to the Carolinas about 1720. It was cul- 
tivated by him in Virginia, also. In 1760, Peter Wynch, President 
of the Agricultural Society of England, secured some of the seed 
from Virginia. It soon came into general use in England. It is 
a native of Europe, and is now grown extensively in western Asia 
and Africa, as well as in Europe and America. 

Timothy is a perennial plant. It has short, flat leaves. On 
good soil it grows two to four feet high. Each stem bears a stiff, 
erect, rough spike or head as thick and generally as long as a lead 



160 



AGRICULTURE 




GRASSES — MEADOWS AND PASTURES 



161 



1 x Jliwu 


P 


/ ^n 


b|\ 1 




B ^ 


T^^BBJI 


^^^ y 



pencil. The grass stands up 
well and the hay is easily cured. 
It has a good appearance, and 
sells readily. 

Timothy may be sown alone 
or in mixtures for meadows, 
but is of little use as a pasture 
plant. It may be sown in the 
fall with wheat or rye, or may 
be planted early in the spring. 
About eleven pounds of j seed 
are used to the acre. It will 
grow on a great variety of soils, 
but grows best on clay loam. 

Blue-grass. — This is one 
of the most common and most 
useful grasses in the north 
temperate ) zone. It is found 
in Great Britain, Asia, Aus- 
tralia, and America. In North 

America it is especially valuable for lawns and for permanent 
pastures in the northern states. It does not do well in the South. 
It yields a hght crop. It makes good pasture from early spring to 
early summer, and again in the fall after the heat of summer is past. 

Blue-grass varies in height from a few inches to a foot or more. 
Its head is light and spreading, and the seed is borne on little 
branches bearing three to five flowers. It spreads rapidly by 
underground branches or rootstocks, so that it gradually takes 
possession of the ground wherever it is planted. It grows in tufts 
or bunches. 

Blue-grass is usually sown in the spring, and it may be planted 
early. Three to ten pounds of good seed to the acre is sufficient 
in pasture mixtures. As much of the seed on the market is poor, 
it may take more than this to secure a good seeding. 



Fig. 80. — Timothy hay plant, nine months 
old. Many shoots rise from the same 
roots. 



162 AGRICULTURE 

Problem 118. Bring to school as many different kinds of grasses as 
you can find in your locality. Ask the teacher to help you dry them and 
mount them on card-board for your museum or collection. Find some 
one who can name those that you do not know. Place the name of each 
one on its card. Study the different kinds until you know them all. 

Problem 119. Name the different kinds of grasses sown by farmers 
in your locality. What is each used for? Do they all ripen at the same 
time? Which do the stock like best? Which kinds sell best? 

Problem 120. Count the number of plants on a piece of pasture sod 
six inches square. If there are 43,560 square feet in an acre, how many 
plants are there to the acre? Kow many different kinds of plants are 
present on the piece of sod ? 

Problem 121. If a meadow yields two tons of hay which, by weight, 
is one fourth clover, one fifth weeds, and the remainder timothy, how many 
pounds of each are harvested? 

Problem 122. What land on your farm is used for pasture ? Why ? 
Is it ever plowed and planted to some other crop ? How often are the 
meadows plowed? What do they precede and follow in the rotation? 
Why? 

Problem 123. Examine a load or mow or forkful of hay to see whether 
you can tell what kinds of grass and other plants it contains. 

Problem 12^. Can you tell what kinds of grass make up the pasture 
nearest the school-house? On your father's farm? 



CHAPTER XXIII 

CLOVERS AND THEIR KIN 

Many leguminous or clover-like plants are of great importance to 
the farmer, not only for their stock-feeding value, but also because 
they make the soil in which they grow richer. They all have the 
power of storing nitrogen in the nodules on their roots, as we 
learned in Chapter XIII. Every good farmer raises one or more 
of them. In the northern states, several varieties of clover are 
grown; in the western states and California, alfalfa is grown; 
in the central and southern states, soybeans, cowpeas, and crimson 
clover ; in the south, velvet beans, beggarweed, and sweet clover 
or melilotus ; in both the north and the south, vetch is grown. 

Importance of the clover. — For many centuries, the most care- 
ful farmers have grown clover or a clover-hke plant, because it 
seemed to make the soil more fruitful. Long before it was dis- 
covered how leguminous plants enriched the soil, it was known 
that they did so. Now that we know that clovers and their kin 
restore to the soil nitrogen which other crops have exhausted, 
farmers include a leguminous crop in their regular rotation systems. 

Uses. — Clover-like plants are sometimes used to occupy the 
land for the short periods between the growing of other crops, so 
as to protect the soil, to make it richer by adding nitrogen, and to 
furnish vegetable matter when plowed under. For example, 
crimson clover may be sown in corn at the last cultivation. After 
the corn is harvested, the clover occupies the land, protects it 
during the winter, and in the spring is plowed in when the ground 
is prepared for the grain that is to follow. 

163 



164 



AGRICULTURE 



Most of the clover-like plants are valuable for feeding to stock, 

because they are rich in 
protein, a substance con- 
taining nitrogen. 

Clover. — The Amer- 
ican colonists cultivated 
the native grasses long 
before they began to 
grow clover. Red 
clover was not carried 
to England from the 
continent of Europe un- 
til 1633, yellow clover 
till 1659, and white ^xc^ 
Dutch clover till 1700. 
These plants did not 
reach America until a 
much later period. 
Now they are widely 
grown, and are num- 
bered among our most 
important forage plants. 
Red clover came to 
us from Europe. It is 
native also to Asia. It 
is used more largely in 
hay mixtures in this 
countr}^ than any of the 
other clovers. It is 
really a perennial plant, 
although it may run 
out after the second or 
third year. It is a 
Fig. 81.— The oommou red clover. Spreading, hairy plant, 




CLOVERS AND THEIR KIN 165 

bearing purplish heads or flowers on the ends of branching, 
leafy stems. The leaves have a prominent whitish spot. 

This clover is easy to grow. It may be planted with oats or 
barley, but is commonly sown in the spring in winter wheat. 
When settled weather has come in the spring, the land is har- 
rowed, and the seed sown and harrowed in. About ten pounds 
of seed to the acre is used. 

The clover should be cut before it comes into bloom the first 
summer or it may not grow well the second summer. For hay, 
it is cut when the heads are in full bloom and before any of them 
have turned brown. Clover pasture is much relished by hogs, 
and cattle thrive on it if not allowed too much at a time. 

Mammoth red clover is a perennial plant. It is less likely to die 
after the second or third year than is red clover. It grows taller 
and stouter than the common red, ripens later, and bears larger 
and darker heads. It yields more heavily than the common red 
clover, but stock do not hke it so well. 

Alsike clover was brought to America from Europe, and is now 
grown in low meadows and waste places from Nova Scotia to 
Idaho. It is a perennial that grows tall, has slender stems, and 
small whitish or rose-colored heads. The leaves are borne on long, 
forked stalks that rise from the low-growing main stem. It 
grows well on cool, moist soils and is valuable in wet meadows 
where red clover would be drowned. It is useful both for hay 
and for pasture. It makes a fine, soft hay. It is a valuable 
honey or bee plant also. 

White clover was introduced from Europe, but is probably native 
to northern America. It is now grown in almost all regions in 
the temperate zones. Some persons think that it was the original 
shamrock. It is a low% creeping, perennial plant, that bears its 
small fragrant white blossoms on long, slender stalks. The leaves, 
which usually are made up of three leaflets, are also supported 
on long, slender stalks. The leaves and the flowers rise from the 
stem that creeps along the surface of the ground. White clover 



166 



AGRICULTURE 



will s^ow in cool cliniatc^s and on moist soils. It grows so low 
that it is not useful for hay, but is a good pasture plant. It is 

much used for lawns, also. 
Crim,son clover had its 
original home in the Medi- 
terranean region in Europe. 
It is an annual plant, erect, 
two to three feet tall, and 
is covered with soft hairs. 
The heads are oblong and 
dense, and are composed 
of brilliant crimson flowers 
The leaves are borne on 
long stalks. It grows best 
in warm climates, on loose, 
sandy soils. It is used 
both for hay and for pas- 
ture, as well as for green- 
manure purposes. 

Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is native 
to the valleys of south- 
western Asia. It was in 
use centuries before the 
Christian era. It spread 
from Persia to Greece about 
480 B.C., then to Italy, 
Spain, Mexico, and South 
America. It reached Mex- 
ico and South America dur- 
ing the Spanish invasion 
in the sixteenth century. 
It was brought to New 
York from Europe as early as 1791. It was carried to Cali- 
fornia from Chile in 1854, and crossed from Mexico into Texas in 




Fig. 82. — A branch of the alfalfa plant. 



CLOVERS ANO TIIIOEIi KIN 



1()7 



th(5 (,'arly part'^of tho nineteenth century. It has sprc^ad rai)i(lly 
in the west and Kouthw(;st, and is j2,Ta(hially becoming; a vahiable 
hay plant in oth(;r sections. 

Alfalfa is a lon^-lived perennial plant. It roots v(;ry dee})ly, 
usually from to 12 feet. Its stems grow 1 to 4 feet high, and 




Fig. 83. — Stacking Altalia in the western eountry, wlicro laii^e arcian are grown. 



in hunches or clumps. Th<' sU^ms are (M>ver(Ml with small leavers 
made up of 3 k^aflets. Th(i flow(!rs an; purf)le, or occasionally 
white, and are clov(;r-shaped. 

To ^Tow alfalfa, a deep, w(!ll-drain(Ml soil, fn^e from a(;id, is 
n(H;essary. If there is too much acid, so that the; soil is '' sour," 
flooding the land or ai)plying lime to it will remove th(; surplus 
acid. Well-rotted barnyard manure makes an cxfMjllent fertiliz(;r. 

The seed-bed must be made fine. The; alfalfa se(MHing is not 
a strong plant, and it cannot compete with weeds until after it 



JOS 



ACiincm/rniM': 



lijis bccoiiK^ well ('s(.M,l)lisli(Ml. It (Icinjiiids plctity of inoisiurc for 
its j»;rowMi, but will iiol Mirivc^ in wet soils; il, should therefore 
he pl.'iiited on m vvell-dr.iiiied soil. 'I'here must he th(^ rigiit kind 
of l>.*ieteriji in the soil to ston^ nitroj;'en in th(^ nodules on tlie 
n.lhilf.'i roots. l*'re(|uently it is necessjiry to secure some soil from 
ji field where .•iM'.mH.'i h.'is ^rown lu\uii;mtly in order to est;ihlish 
the h.'Miteri.M. in the new linid. 

In the West, \2 to 20 pounds, .Miid in the M'lst , '20 to M) pounds, 
of seed :ivv. sown to the Mcre. Alf.'ilhi ^rows rapidly and may he 
eut^ 2 or li times each season in the T^ast, and four to seven times 
in the West. It will yield I to T) tons U) the acre. I*'ields may 
he ke|)t in alfalfa as lon^ as lifty or more yea.is. 

Alfalfa is a valuable hay plant, because it is rich in protein. 
It. should be cut when it. opens into (lower. It. ma.kes ^ood i)asture^ 
if the stock are all<>we(l to ^ra/e only ji little at. a time. It is 
useful in making the soil riclu'r, because of the nitro<j;(Mi gathered 
in the nodules on its roots. 

Cowpeas. The cowpea ha.d its orii2;inal home in India and 
the rej^ion t.o the north. It has been cultivated h)r two thousand 
years or more. Vaiielies have been disti'ibutcd throughout 1h(^ 
world, but oidy in (Miina, India, and the southern pait. of the 
United States has it become an impoitaiit. farm crop. It. rejiched 
t.he West Indies in the la.tt.er half of the sevetiteenth century, and 
was biou^ht to the United Stales some time later. In recent 
years it has been ^rown t.o a consideiable extent in the northern 
|)art of the United Staies. 

The cowpea is a sunmier-^rowin^ annual |)lant, closely I'clated 
t.o the bean. Sonw varieties are erect a.nd bush-like, otlxM'S Jire 
trailing;. It is a climbing plant, and its slender rnnncM's twine 
around neaiby objects. The leaves have each three leaflets, a.nd 
in ap])earance aie much like those of the ^;ar(len bean. The flow- 
ers are whit ish or whit ish ])ui])le, and may have a yellow tint . The 
]kmIs ai-e usually st law-colored, and ai"e f) t.o 10 inches Ion*;*. 

(\)W])eas will «;row on almost any kind of soil e\ce])t that, which 



(CLOVERS AND THIOIR KIN 



!()<) 




FlU. 84. — ( 'owpcuis f^rowiiiK Ix-l wren rows (»l con 



n^rrmins wet during the; siirnrrHT. It likes ii wartii crunjitci and is 
easily killed by frost. The soil should he well ])re])ared hy i)low- 



170 AGRICULTURE 

ing and harrowing. The seed may be sown broadcast or in drills. 
When sown broadcast, four to six pecks of seed are used per acre, 
and when planted in rows two to three pecks. 

The leaves of cowpeas fall off easily when it is being cured, so 
that sometimes a grass crop, as German millet, is grown with it. 
The millet makes the curing quicker and entangles the leaves so 
that they are saved. Cowi)ea hay is allowed to lie where it is cut 
for 24 to 36 hours, after which it is raked and piled into cocks. If 
the weather is fair, the curing will be completed in the cocks in 2 
or 3 days. Then the cocks may be opened for a few hours before 
being hauled to the barn. 

Cowpeas arc; grown for hay, green forage, and to enrich the land. 

Other clover-like plants. — The soybean is closely related to the 
cowpea. It is grown more or less throughout the eastern and south-^ 
ern parts of the United States. It is used for human food, for 
stock food, and to improve soils. 

Vetches are grown both in the North and in the South as pasture 
])lants for horses, cattle, sheep, and swine. They are frequently 
grown merely to enrich the soil. 

Melilotus, the common "sweet clover" that grows by the road- 
side, is sometimes planted in the South to be used as a green-manure, 
forage, and bee plant. Generally it is looked upon as a weed. 

Problem 125. How many legumes can you name? 

Problem 126. Bring to school a plant of each of the clovers ana other 
legumes that you can find. Mount them on cards for your museum. 
Compare them carefully and explain how they resemble each other, and 
how they differ. Compare the flowers especially. How do the stems of 
white clover differ from the stems of other clovers? 

Problem 127. Are any of these plants grown on your farm merely to 
enrich the soil ? What is a cover-crop and wliat are its uses ? 

Problem 128. Which is the better stock feed : timothy hay, clover, or 
alfalfa? 

Problem 129. What kinds of h^guminous plants run wild in your nc^igh- 
borliood? What kinds are cultivated? 

Problem 130. Write a short essay about the use that is made of clove 
on the farm, and where it should come in the rotation system. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

POTATO 

It is thought that the potato was cultivated in Peru at least 
2000 years ago. When the Spaniards came as conquerors to South 
America, they found the Indians cultivating the plant in all the 
valleys of the Andes from Chile to New Granada (now Colombia). 
They carried it back to Spain with them, and passed it into Italy 
and the Netherlands before it was known in England. Both Sir 




Fig. 85. — Potatoes. 

Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh are credited with its intro- 
duction into England. It was probably taken to Ireland in 1586 
by Thomas Herriot, who was a member of the expedition sent to 
America by Sir Walter Raleigh. Raleigh cultivated it on his farm 
near Cork in Ireland. He called it Battata. 

The potato has strongly affected the fortunes of English-speak- 
ing peoples. Its destruction by blight in 1846 was the cause of the 

171 



172 AGRICULTURE 

" Great Famine," which drove over the seas so many thousands of 
Ireland's best and sturdiest workers to help in building up America. 

It is a common opinion that the aborigines of Virginia cultivated 
the potato at the time of the discovery of America. The crop was 
early grown by the Virginia colony. It was not grown in New Eng- 
land until the arrival of the Presbyterian immigrants from Ire- 
land in 1718. The potato has been developed to a greater extent 
in Europe than in America, and is now a staple crop throughout 
both continents. 

Place of the potato in agriculture. — Next to rice, the potato is 
probably the most extensively grown and most valuable crop in 
the world. The annual yield of the world is nearly 5,000,000,000 
bushels. The potato crop of Europe alone is greater in value than 
the reported wheat crop of the world. One acre of potatoes fre^ 
quently furnishes as much human food as ten acres of wheat. 

As potatoes are a cultivated crop they fit well into rotation sys- 
tems, to follow the grass and precede the small grain. 

The potato plant. — The potato is a plant having a weak stem, 
branches of which may grow long and trail on the ground. The the 
stem is round and smooth, and all parts of the green plant are 
juicy. The leaves grow alternately and are compound, a pair of 
very small leaflets growing between pairs of much larger size. 

In some varieties the slightly fragrant flowers are light purple or 
lilac, in others they are white. The fruit or seed-ball is round and 
about the size of a small plum, and of a yeUowish color when ripe. 
It is packed full of seeds shaped very much like tomato seeds, bat 
smaller. 

The part of the potato that we eat is an enlarged under- 
ground stem called a tuber. We might think from its appear- 
ance and from the fact that it is produced beneath the surface 
of the ground, that it is a root ; but when we study it, we shall 
find it is not. In the first place, although the tubers differ 
greatly in size, shape, and color, they are all alike in having ^'eyes" 
on their surfaces. These are fewest near the stem end, where the 



POTATO 



173 



tubers are fastened to the plant, and are very numerous at the 
opposite or ^'bud" end. When the potato is allowed to sprout, 
we discover that each eye is a leaf-bud from which a leaf-grOwth 
springs. We know that leaves grow from stems only, and not 







Fig. 86. — The underground parts of the potato plant in a loose, mellow soil, 
showing the tubers and the true roots. 

from roots ; therefore, the potato tuber cannot be a root. It is 
part of the stem underground, enlarged for the storage of surplus 
plant-food. In the second place, rootlets are never attached to the 
tubers of the potato, but to the main root-stem of the plant itself. 
Culture. — In its wild state the potato reproduces itself through 
the seeds which are borne in the seed-ball at the end of the stalk. 
The seeds from any one plant, however, may produce several va- 
rieties of potatoes, so that the farmer cannot depend on the seed for 
his new crop. The tubers will produce plants bearing other tubers 
just like themselves, so the farmer plants tubers or parts of tubers 
for his new crop. 



174 AGRICULTURE 

Each eye of the potato will develop a leaf-bud and put forth root- 
lets. If a piece large enough to nourish the young plant until 
it becomes established is used, a stronger plant will result. Pota- 
toes which have sprouted in the cellar or pit, sending out long, 
colorless shoots, should never be used for planting, as the tubers 
have been robbed of that much plant-food. 

Ideal conditions for the growth of the seed are a moderately 
moist and deep, fertile soil, and a relatively cool climate. The seed 
is planted two to four inches deep. The most successful potato 
growers do not hill up their plants, at least not until late in the 
season, but keep the field level. Level culture wastes less moisture 
than hilhng. 

A few days after planting, the spike-toothed harrow or the 
weeder should be run over the field to destroy all weeds before 
they are well started. Then the weeder may be used once a 
week until the plants are seven to ten inches tall. Thereafter, 
about five cultivations should be given at intervals of seven to 
ten days. 

Early potatoes are dug as soon as they are large enough to 
sell. Late varieties are left until the vines are dead. The pota- 
toes should be harvested when the land is dry, and the tubers 
picked up at once and kept in a cool place. 

The average yield of potatoes in the United States is about 
85 bushels per acre, but under ideal conditions 300 to 500 bushels 
per acre is not uncommon. 

Enemies. — The first enemies of the potato 
plant, to appear are leaf flea-beetles. They 
arrive as soon as the plants are above ground. 
They gnaw small holes in the leaves. Repeated 
spraying of the vines with Bordeaux mixture 
combined with Paris green will check this de- 
stroyer. The same remedy should be applied 
^^ for the black-and-yellow coated Colorado potato 

Fia. 87. — The po- -^ ^ 

tato beetle. beetle. 




POTATO 



175 



The diseases of the potato may 
be more destructive than its insect 
marauders. The early bhght, which 
usually appears in June, may de- 
stroy some of the foliage and check 
the growth. The late blight is much 
more serious. The vines may be so 
badly injured that no tubers wall be 
formed. Spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture is the remedy. 

Scab and rot are diseases that 
attack the tubers underground. 





Fig. 88. 

The flower and 
leaf of the sweet 
potato plant. 



be 



Fig. 89 



They, also, may 
very destructive. 

Uses. — Potatoes 
are used most largely 
for human food. They 
are also valuable for 
stock-food, either raw 
or cooked. From the 
tubers, starch and al- 
cohol are made. 

Sweet potatoes. — 
The sweet potato, 
which is a staple food 
crop in the South, dif- 
fers from the Irish or 
white potato in that 
it is a true root and 
not an enlarged under- 
ground stem or tuber. 



176 A(jRi(jui;njRio 

It luis no oyes, no leaf-buds. Sin;ill rootlets run out from it. It 
Ix^lon^s to the same family of |)lants as tli(^ mornin^-^lory, and 
th(^ flowei'S resemble those of 1 he moi-niii^-<;iory. 

"^['Ik^ sw(H;t polato probably had its oiij!;inal home; in tropical 
Anu^rica. It is now in cultiv^alion in many of tlu^ islands of the 
Pacific. It is reproduced by plnnliu*;- the swC(;t [)()tato, which is 
a true root, as we learned in ( 'hapter XVIII. 

Prohlcni. I. if. I)i^ Uj) an (MiUn; potato plaiil, without hnMiking olT the 
tubers, and exainiiu^ it in tlu; field or brin^ il into tlu^ scilioolrooni. Where 
are the true roots? What is Mi(> diflereiKMi between them and the stems 
on whi<'li the potnJoes Mr(^ borne? How rnniiy })()tatoes grow on each 
stem? Do the true roots }i;o iruich deeper than the tubers? Are any 
rootlets attached to th(> potato ;is to beets, turnips, or swe(>t potatoes? 
What does this indicate? 

J'rohlcni. I.V.i. In a box in the schoolroom plant one; whole po(,ato, orie^ 
piece having" two eyes, and oik* piec(> ha-vinji; no (\y(\s. Mark th(; place 
where ea.(^h is planted. Do they all ^lovv ? If not, why? Which (hwolops 
the best plant? 

Prohlcni I. hi. in another box, pla,nt a lar^'c piece of [)()tato having 
only one v.yc. y\s soon as the rootlets Ix^rin to appc^ar divide the eye and 
l)iece into two parts and re-plant. In a, few days after the rootlets have 
afjjain started, divide the two i)ieces into four and r{vi)lant. See how many 
times this can be rep(;at(Ml, and how many i)()tat() plants may Ix^ fj;rown 
from one eye. Wh(>n lar^'e (Miou.t;h. set these little pla,nts in the S(^hooI- 
*i;a,r(len, if tlui weather is suital)l(\ 

I*r(>hlcni, t.i/f. Purchaser at tlu^ druj;- stor(^ fiv(; (UMits' worth of iodiiui 
{(I poison). Dilute it on(^ half with wat(U\ ('ut a lew slic(\s of potato and 
a|)ply a, lew drops of iodin(^ to the freshly (uit snrfaces. The color will 
chafi^-e to a l)hi(>-))la,ck. This shows that the potato is comi)()S(Ml of stored 
up starch. When iodine touches j;rains of starch, they turn to a blue- 
black. 

I'rohlrni LiF). 1 )rscribc the dilTerenc(^ between th(> common or white 
potato and the sweet potato. 

Profdcni liid. How many kinds of |)ota,toes do you know? How do 
you distinjijuish them? 

Prohkni I'.iJ. How does yonr father ke(>p or store his p()ta,t()(\s? 

Problem /.%*. How mnch are potatoes worth in the market at pres(Mit? 



(JIIAPTKR XXV 

THE ORCHARD 

Nature has <;(Mi('n)usly provided irmri}^ kinds of fruit, and 
many varieties of ouv.h, so that somo sort will j!;row in nearly 
every se(;tion of America. Nearly all farms have some fruit. 
^l'h(;re may be only a few trees for family use, or there may be 
or(!har(ls that cover many acTc^s. In tUv latt(;r case, fruit-growing 
is an important {)art of the farm business. It may be the largest 
[)art of th(^ business. 

Location of the orchard. r'ruil nuiy be grown for a lew 
years on almost any kind of soil. Hut if w<! would grow long- 
liv(!(l trees and fruit of superior quality, then the (;limat(^, site, 
and soil must be favorabh;. The site is the place where the 
orchard is to be planted. 

There may be more than one site on th(5 farm for the; onjhard, 
th(; main difference b(;twe(in them b(;ing the slofx^ South and 
w(^st slo[)es are hottest in summer and anj subj(u;t to more sudden 
weather changes than north or east slopes. On south sl()[)(;s, 
p(;ach tr(;es may be brought into blossom (earlier than on north 
and (iast slopes ; cons(Kiu(^ntly they an^ more liable to (^arly frost 
injury. On the western plains, the best, growth of n;itive timber 
is always on north slopes. 

In g(!n(;ral, we may say that for apple, pear, and plum tr(!(;s, 
a location that slopes to the southwest, w(;st, or northwest, is 
best ; peach and cherry trec^s aoem to prefer a northwest or w(;st 
slope. 

The choice of the soil is as important as the choice of slope. 
A rich, deep, moist clay loam is idc^al for apples, pears, and plums, 
N 177 



178 AGRICULTURE 

and a light, sandy loam is preferable for peaches and cherries. 
If the prospective grower has no choice of soil, and must take a 
less desirable kind, he may still grow fruit for home use. 

The soil should be prepared as carefully for the fruit crop as 
for the corn crop, so that the roots may run far and wide in search 
of food and water. Frequently it will be necessary to drain the 
land, as fruit land must not be wet. For best results the soil 
must be pulverized, drained, and deepened. 

Planting the trees. — On a well-fitted soil, the first essentials 
for success are the trees. They should be purchased from a 
reliable nursery as near home as possible so that they will be 
accustomed to the climate of the region in which they are to be 
grown. 

The trees may be planted either in fall or in spring. The row-S„ 
should be straight, both for appearance and because tillage will 
be easier. The trees must be set far enough apart so as to make 
the best growth. The distance will vary. A common distance 
is to plant apple trees 40 feet apart each way, pears 20 to 25 feet 
each way, quinces 16 feet, plums 20 feet, sour cherries 20 feet, 
sweet cherries 30 feet, peaches 20 feet. 

When the trees are dug from the nursery, many of the roots 
are destroyed. If all of the top is left, there will be a greater 
demand for plant-food than the roots can supply. Usually the 
top is cut back severely, so that only a '' leader " and three or 
four short side branches are left. 

A hole is dug sufficiently large to accommodate the roots com- 
fortably in their natural positions. Fine, rich soil must be worked 
firmly about the roots so that they can begin their activities at 
once. A shallow layer of loose soil is left on the surface as a mulch. 
Coarse, fresh stable manure should not be placed in contact with 
the roots. 

Tilling and fertilizing. — Orchard trees grow large and are 
expected to bear heavy crops of fruit year after year. To do 
this, they must receive good care and abundant plant-food. 



THE ORCHARD 



179 



We know that tillage improves texture, saves moisture, and 
sets free plant-food. It is therefore a very important operation in 
the orchard. Over 90 per cent of most fruits is water. To obtain 
a large crop there must be a great abundance of moisture in the 
soil. In dry seasons, the moisture must be prevented from 
escaping from the soil. The apples on sod land are likely to be 
much smaller and poorer in a dry summer than those grown on 
tilled land. 

The orchard may be plowed first thing in the spring to break 
up the soil. During the summer the harrow and the cultivator 
should be used to preserve the 
surface mulch. 

Trees make heavy demands 
on the plant-food in the soil, 
so that it is seldom wise to 
grow any other crop, even 
grass, in the orchard. The 
soil will need to have humus 
added to it from time to time. 
This may be done by applying 
barnyard manure or growing a 
cover-crop. It may be neces- 
sary to add commercial fer- 
tilizers containing nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, and potash, 
of nitrogen, or water, or both 




Fig. C.O. — The Baldwin apple. 



Stunted growth indicates the need 
Fruit lacking in flavor and color 
suggests that phosphoric acid and potash are needed. 

Pruning and spraying. — Tilling and fertilizing are only part of 
the care of the growing and bearing orchard. They make the tree 
grow. Pruning and spraying direct the growth and protect the 
tree from injury by insects and diseases. 

A wild, uncared for tree seldom produces good fruit. It may 
produce very many small fruits. The fruit-grower desires large, 
well-shaped and well-colored fruit that will be attractive on the 



180 



A(;iii(jni;riiH,K 



market. To ohtuiii it, he keeps his trees vij^oroiis, and removes 
unproduelive and iiilcrferiii^ branches. 

Pnmiiij!; helps to make a tree vij^orous ; it also clwiii^es the shape 
of the tree to suit tlui wishes of tlu^ grower. Winter priming eii- 
couraji;es the j^rowth of wood, while summer |)ruiiiu^- eiicoura^os 
tlie jiroduction of fruit. 

Youn^ trees that were properly pruned when set out will re- 
quire; litti(! j)runin^ until they be^in to hear. Shoots that would 




Yic. 91. — Picking lial(h 



TIk; fruit-Krowcr has liis busiest season at (1> 
tiarvcst tiiiic. 



make a ])()orly shaped head, or that c^ross and interfere with other 
branches, should l)e removed. In pruning;" old fruit trees, th(^ aim 
should he to prev<'nt crrossinp; ami (a*ow(lin«»; of branches and to tJiin 
out old wood, so that yoimj;", vif2,orous wood may tak(* its place. 
Wlien the ends and hij»;h(;st braneluis an; cut back, growth is formed 
in the lower branches. 

All fruit trees have enemies, both insects and diseases. Thoy 



182 



AGRICULTURE 




must be controlled if good 
fruit is to be grown. This 
is done partly by spray- 
ing. Some kinds of sprays 
are used for insects, and 
othei kinds for diseases. 
We shall learn more 
about spraying in Chap- 
ters XXIX and XXX. 

Harvesting. — If the 
grower is to secure part or 
all of his income from his 
fruit, the harvesting and 
marketing become very 
important. The fruit 
should be picked, not 
pulled, and handled care- 
fully to prevent bruising. 
It should be graded accord- 
ing to size and quality be- 
fore it is packed, so that 
each barrel or box will be 
uniform throughout. When 
this is done, it is attractive 
to the buyer. Neat pack- 
ages and careful packing 
add to the selling price. 

Kinds of fruit. — The 
more important orchard 
fruits in America are apples, 
peaches, pears, plums, cher- 
ries, oranges, and lemons. 
The apple is the king of all 
fruits in this country. 



THE ORCHARD 183 

Apples. — From time immemorial the apple tree has been cul- 
tivated by man. Its original home was in southwestern Asia and 
southeastern Europe. It is now grown in every temperate climate 
and is the most important tree fruit. 

Apple orchards were common in the American colonies, and 
shiploads of apples were exported to the West Indies. The first 
trees in New England were planted on Governor's Island, Boston 
Harbor, from which '' ten fair pippins " were picked on October 
10, 1639. An apple nursery was planted on the farm of Governor 
Endicott, at Salem, in 1640. In 1641, apple trees were planted 
on Governor Berkeley's farm in Virginia. 

The best apple region in America is a stretch of country 
beginning with Nova Scotia and extending west and southwest 
to Lake Michigan. Many other sections are well adapted for 
this fruit. 

North America is the leading apple-growing country in the world. 
A full crop of all kinds and grades for the United States and Can- 
ada is probably not less than 100,000,000 barrels. 

Apple stocks are grown from seeds. At the end of a year, or 
a little longer, the desired variety is budded or grafted on to the 
stock in the nursery row. The trees are set in the orchard when 
two or three years old. 

Peaches. — The peach probably had its original home in China. 
It has been in cultivation from the earhest times. It came into 
Europe by way of Persia, and from there reached America. As 
early as 1629 peaches were grown in Virginia, and before the Revo- 
lutionary War New Jersey and Delaware were famous for their 
peaches. 

The peach is tender to frost, and is not so easily grown as the 
apple. It grows best in mild cHmates, near bodies of water. There 
are '' belts " along the Great Lakes, in Connecticut, in the South 
Atlantic States, in Illinois westward to Missouri, southeastern 
Texas, western Colorado and California, where peach-growing is 
specially successful. 



184 AGRICULTURE 

The peach is propagated by means of seeds. The first year the 
seedhngs are budded in the nursery to the desired variety. A 
year later they are ready to plant in the orchard. 

Pears. — The pear is a native of Europe and was introduced into 
America by the colonists. It is now grown in many parts of the 
temperate zone, but the largest production is in France and the 
United States. In America, the best pear regions are in the north- 
eastern states, from New England west to the Great Lakes, and 
in California and parts of Oregon and Washington. 

Pear seedlings are grown in the same manner as those of the 
apple. The young trees are ready for the orchard two or three 
years after they have been budded in the nursery row. 

Plupis. — Many varieties of plums are grown in America, which 
came from different original ancestors. Some had their first honie 
in southeastern Asia, some in western Asia, some in southeastern 
Europe, some in America, and others elsewhere. 

The seedlings, grown from the seeds, are budded at the end of 
one or two years' growth. Plums may also be grown from '' suck- 
ers," or shoots, which spring from the roots. 

Cherries. — Most of the cherries grown in America have come 
from plants that are native to Europe. Cherries are not grown as 
an important farm crop east of the Rocky Mountains, except in 
western New York, where the sour varieties are grown for canning. 

Cherries are raised from seeds, and the seedlings are budded or 
grafted to the desired variety, much the same as apples. 

Problem. 139. Can you tell the difference between apple, peach, pear, 
plum, and cherry trees in summer? How? In winter? 

Problem I40. How many different kinds of fruit that are sold in your 
locality are brought from other sections of the state or country ? Where 
do they come from ? 

Problem, I4I. If yours is a fruit-growing region, what is done with the 
fruit that is grown ? Is any of it dried ? Is any manufactured ? Is any 
made into cider ? Where is the cider sold, and for what purpose ? 

Problem 1^2. Name three fall apples, and three winter apples. De- 
scribe them. 



THE ORCHARD 185 

Problem 143. Describe in detail how apples are picked, packed, and 
stored. 

Problem 144- Are there orchards in your locality that are cultivated ? 
Do they seem to yield better crops than those in sod ? Is there any dif- 
ference in the health of tlie trees? 

Problem 145. What difference is there between the orchards that are 
sprayed and those that are not sprayed? For what j^things are they 
sprayed ? 

Problem 146- When is pruning done? What parts of the tree are 
removed ? Why ? 



CHAPTER XXVI 



THE FARM GARDEN 



Every farm should have its garden-spot. Many of our schools 
have gardens, and some day all good country schools will have 




I . » 



-^'- c^ «'.-'; 






^ »^ 



^j^^-^^ 



Fig. 94. — Staking out the school <j;:ir(lcn. 



gardens in which boys and girls will study how vegetables and flow- 
ers grow. They will learn how to prepare the soil, how to plant and 
care for the seeds and i)lants, what thoir needs are, and how to sup- 
ply them. The garden is simply a miniature farm, in which plants 

186 



THE FARM GARDEN 187 

receive individual attention. It should be the most productive 
area on the farm. Usually it is the least productive. 

Location of the garden. — The farm garden should be placed near 
the house, bec^ause it is truly the " kitchen '' garden and should be 
easily reached from the kitchen. It should be large enough for 
the crops to have an abundance of room, and so that horse-culti- 
vation may be given instead of hand-cultivation. Long rows, or 
an oblong garden instead of a square one, make horse-cultivation 
easier. The vegetable garden may be a part of a field crop, as corn 
or potatoes, the vegetables being planted at the ends of the; field 
rows so that both crops may be cultivated at once. 

The soil. — If we are starting the garden on new ground, we 
must first put the soil in good condition by plowing under a liberal 
quantity of stable manure, or by planting a cover-crop to be plowed 
under the season before the garden is to be made. A dressing of 
five to ten loads per acre of fine, rich sta})le manure should be 
worked into the soil with a disk or spring-tooth harrow. If stable 
manure cannot be had, a good commercial garden fertilizer may be 
used at the rate of one half to one ton per acre, or 50 to 120 i)ounds 
per square rod. Vegetables must grow rapidly, and so the soil 
must be rich. A small, rich garden is much more satisfactory and 
less expensive than a large, poor one. 

If the location of the garden can be secured in the fall, much of 
the preliminary work, as leveling, the removal of rough material, 
and the ploughing or spading, may be done before freezing weather. 
Fall plowing is to be recommended, as winter freezing has a l)ene- 
ficial effect on the soil, causing it to crumble; and separate into fine 
particles. It is possil^le also to work fall-plowed land earlier in 
the spring than unplowed land. If spring plowing must be done, 
it is best to begin as early as the ground will permit. It is well to 
plow to a depth of four to six inches and to harrow the soil fine; with 
a spring-tooth harrow, after which the small stones and rubbish may 
be raked off with a hand rake, and the ground leveled for sowing 
seeds. 



188 AGRICULTURE 

Heavy clay is not the best soil for gardens. If such a soil must 
be used, it should be drained, and muck, grass, sand, or coal ashes 
added to lighten it. Clay should never be plowed when it is wet. 
Gravelly, sandy, and clay loams are easy to work and are good 
garden soils. 

Sowing the seeds. — The entire garden need not be planted at 
one time. If radishes, lettuce, and peas are planted early, they 
may be harvested in time to plant sweet corn, cucumbers, squash, 
late beets, cabbage, and other crops in their place. After early 
beans, sweet corn, and potatoes, we may plant celery, turnips, 
spinach, and the like. Usually it is desirable to have a succession 
of sweet corn and peas. In order to do so, early, medium, and late 
varieties are planted at one time, and some good variety is planted 
every week or ten days for a few weeks thereafter. 

In planting the seed, it is much better to sow in rows than broad- 
cast. The seedlings may then be more easily distinguished from 
one another, thinning and weeding may be quickly done, and the 
soil between the rows may be hoed without injury to the seedling 
plants. 

It is best, if possible, to have the rows extend north and south ; 
this will give each row its share of sunlight. If the rows run east 
and west, and one or more rows contain tall plants, there is danger 
of shading the rows in the rear. 

Watering the garden. — If it is necessary to water the growing 
plants, it should be done late in the afternoon, if possible. If 
watered in the morning, the sun causes very rapid evaporation, 
leaving the soil dry, and. causing heavy soils to bake. 

As we have learned, thorough cultivation of the soil will hold the 
moisture in the soil and lessen the need of watering. Much of 
the watering in gardens may be done by the rake. With the rake 
we can create a fine, loose, dry mulch which will keep the water from 
escaping by evaporation. A mulch may be made, also, by spread- 
ing on the ground grass, hay, straw, coarse manure, leaves, or 
boards, i - 



THE FARM GARDEN 



189 



Starting the plants. — The seeds of all but the coarser growing 
plants may be started in the house in March or April, by using 
shallow boxes or trays filled with Hght 
soil. Care is needed not to sow the seeds 
too early, for if the plants grow spindling 
they will be difficult to transplant. Six 
weeks before the time to plant outdoors 
is early enough to sow the seeds in 
boxes, and even then it may be neces- 
sary to transplant to other boxes before 
the ground is fit to receive the seedlings. 

Planting out-doors. — With a fine, 
mellow seed-bed, the seeds should be 
covered according to their size and the 
weather conditions. Small seeds should 
be covered three or four times their 
thickness in dry weather, and less 
deeply in wet weather. The soil should 
be pressed firmly about the seed with 
the hands, foot, or hoe. 

Care of the garden. — The garden 
demands careful attention throughout 
the summer. Weeds must be kept 
out, the surface soil nmst be loose, and 
the plants must be protected from de- 
structive insects and diseases. Many 
enemies will come upon the garden to 
destroy it. For insects that hiU) or 
chew the leaves, helle})oro, Paris green, 
arsenate of lead, and other poisons may 
be used. For insects that puncture the 

leaves and suck its juices, whale-oil soap, kerosene emulsion, and 
lime and sulfur wash, are valuable. For blights, rusts, and rots, 
Bordeaux mixture is the best protection. 




Fig. 95.— 
quarter, 
gardens. 



Pigweed, or lamb's 
A common weed in 



190 ackkuiltukp: 

Harvesting. — Early vcgct.iihlcs should Ik- liarvcnstod as soon as 
1 Ih\V Jirc larjiic (mioiij»;1i for table use. Kadishos, beets, turnips, and 
k(>lilr.'ibi become woody if left in the j»;round too lon^;. Lettuce, 
spinach, cabba|i;e, and cauliflower will run to seed if left after they 
are fully mature. 

Winter vej»;(^tables should be fresh and tender when gathered, and 
should be stored in a cool, moist phuu' at a temperature of about 
'A2 or 'X^ doi:![,vvv><. l^e(^ts, parsni})s, and similar ero])s may be pac^ked 
in cool, sli«»;htly moist leaves. Suc^h leaves may be gathered in the 
morning aflci- a frost or when there is a light snow on them. 

Small fruits. — The gniden will not be com])lete without its 
strawberries, bhicUberries, I'aspberries, currants, and g()OS(^berri(^s. 
Thesc^ also, should be })la.nt{Hl in long rows, wide apart, so that they 
n»ay have horse-cultivation and not be crowded in their growth. x^ 

Strawberries will yield as large a wop to the acre as apples. 
'rh(\v do well on new land that has grown a crop of potatoes or 
some other hoed cro]). The soil nmst be carefully i)re])ared and 
all weeds ke])l out. l^sually only one or two crops are gathered 
from (he slravvbeii-y bed and tJien a new one is made. In the 
norlJi (he ])la,nts mus( be ])r()tectiHl during (he winter. A liglit 
covering of straw, old hay, strawy manure, ])ine needles, or other 
light material will serve for this ])urpose. 

Has]) berries, blac^kberries, currants, and gooseberries do best on 
loose, dee]), rich. loam soil, but may be grown on others that con- 
tain ])lenty of vegetable matter. New plantations may be made 
every six to ten years. The best t ime t.o ])lant is in tlie fall. Rasp- 
berries and blackberries are pruned eacrh year by rcMuoving tlie 
canes that have borne fruit as soon as the fruit is gathercul. In 
pruning currants an<l gooseberries, wood more than three or 
four years old is r-emoved, so as to encourage the growth of new 
canes. 

l*r()bl(>n I //? . How inniiy farmers in your ncigliborhood h;iv(^ gardens? 
What, are the six crops mostly grown in thorn? 

l*'oblvni tJfS. Is the same land on your farm used year after year for 



Tin*: FAliM (JA1M)1']N 191 

the ^.-mlcii ? If so, liovv it, is fertilized — with l»n,riiy:inl inniiiii-e, coiii- 
mercial fertili/ers, or j^reeii-iiiaiuin^s? 

J'rohlcni l/ffK Is coniinerci.'il fertilizer :ij)[)lie<l to some ci'ops and not 
to otliers? WliJit kind of fertilizer is used for each of the particular 
crops? Why ih it us(m1? 

Prohinn IftO. VVliat kinds of root (rrops are <j;;rovvii in your farm f2;;ir- 
(l(!n? VVliat kinds of vine crops? Wha.t, kinds of ci'ops ar(^ ^rown for 
their leaves? Which cro|)s ace planted earliest ? Whic^h lat(\st? 

Proldrni I/it. J)escril)e the diUerent ways in which a ji;arden may Ix^ 
watered, or the water made available to th(^ |)la,nt-s. 

Probinu f/>2. In the spring;, lay out a garden on the school ^;rounds, at 
one side when^ it will not interfere with the playground. It may need 
a ^ood dressinji; of barnyard manure. Let each member of i\\c (;la,ss hav(5 
a shan; in it, for which he is esp<'<'ially responsible. IMant l(H,tuc{*, radishes, 
pvuH, strawberries, sweet i)eas, and ( 'hina asters. Tnkv. special can^ and 
pride in vnch step in the work preparation of the soil, straight, cv(^n 
plantiiifj;, {»;rou[)inf!; each crop by itseslf, a fin(i, clean nuilch, frecMJom from 
weeds. ( 'ompare the school ^;ar(len with the Iiome ^anhui. See how many 
ideas you ca,n carry from the school ^arde!! to the; houK^ ^ijardcMi. 



CHAPTER XXVII 



THE WOOD CROP 



Trees grown in the farm woodlot are as truly a farm crop as 
corn or cotton. They are planted, harvested, and used to supply 
human needs. If the woodlot is mismanaged, it will return a poor 
crop, just as will the wheat field. Most farm woodlots are poorly 
managed, and farmers are thereby wasting an important source of 
income. ^ 

Importance to the farmer. — It is estimated that the farmers' 
woodlots of the country alone are capable of growing more timber 
than our present total consumption. In 1900, over $100,000,000 
worth of wood was cut on farmers' woodlots, and about one third 
of the area in farms was in wood. 

The farmer himself uses considerable wood. It is his usual 
fuel, and supplies material for fences, buildings, and many other 
purposes. If the farmer cannot get what wood he needs from his 
own farm, he must either go without or be put to much expense. 
It is important, therefore, that in the East, the farmer know how 
to grow the largest and best wood crop, and in the West, where 
timber frequently is scarce, how to choose and plant trees that 
will supply his needs. 

In some places, woodlots are useful to protect buildings and Uve- 
stock from driving winds. On the treeless plains and prairies, 
trees are sometimes planted for this purpose alone. 

The loose, deep vegetable mulch in a well-cared for woodlot or 
forest will hold a large part of the water of rains. As this water 
drains away slowly, floods are prevented and a continuous supply 
of water is made available in streams. 

192 



THE WOOD CROP 193 

The farmer should look upon his wood crop as one of his regular 
farm crops. He should give it a share of his. attention. As he 
does not harvest the entire crop at one time, he must know when 
and where to cut so as to leave the remainder in the best condition 
to encourage the growth of young trees. He must know what 
kinds of trees will grow best in his locality, what each is useful for, 
how it behaves toward other trees in the forest, how long it requires 
for growth, and other similar facts. 

Place on the farm. — Trees will grow on land that is useless for 
general farm purposes. On most farms there are some soils that 
are fit only for timber crops. By leaving this land in timber, or 
planting it to trees, the farmer has made his best investment in 
that land. Farms are sometimes deserted or abandoned because 
they will not produce good farm crops. Very often such farms are 
naturally well adapted for the growing of trees. 

Lumbering is generally done in winter. The farmer who has 
a large, well-kept woodlot will be able to use his help in the woods 
in winter when general farm work is light. The care of the wood- 
lot fits in well with other work, as it can be done at odd times. A 
few months' difference in time in cutting the wood crop will not 
injure it. 

History. — The farm woodlot is almost everywhere the remr.ant 
of a large forest that once covered the region. When the early 
settlers from the Old World landed on the Atlantic coast of North 
America, they found a country almost covered with dense forests. 
There was little open land for the growing of crops. While the 
forest gave the settler fuel and shelter, and provided him with 
game, yet it was too often filled with hostile Indians, who, from 
its cover, dealt death to the settler and his family and destruction 
to his home. Instead of being an aid and protection to him, it 
became an object of fear. How to make a clearing most rapidly 
was the important question. 

When the settlers in the northeastern states hewed their farms 
out of the forest, turning into pasture and field a large part of their 



194 A(;iM(iii;iMiiM'; 

lioldin^K, Micy I*'!! pnrts iiiicwi. lor Mh'Ii- own wood supply. This 
wns l() riirnisli IcrKr/'-posls luid mils, rcpitir wood for l)nildiii^i;s mjkI 
iiiipicinciil^ , .'iikI, .'dtovc nil, rn«'Wood. hi l(»SI, jmi ordiii.'iiicc of 
Willinin I'ciiii, iiilciidcd To prolcci Mn- Torcsls, rccjiiircd Mini one 
Jicn; of Iniid he Idl in trees for- <\('rv liv<' .•teres ele;i,red. Tliis WUH 
iiol, failJirully ol»eyed. 

The helier l;in<l w;is iisiuilly ele.'ired (iisl, :iii(| iJie woodlol, leit 
on Uie |)o(»|-er l:inds .'iiid hillsides. The l:i,e(, Mi:ii, the Im.ikI wuh UTl- 
Huilcd for f.'uinin^ or inconvenicnMy lo(ui(,ed w;is donhlless inipor- 
l,n.nl in de(< rniininf:; wimi huid should he lel'l. in I rees. 

I'Voni I he lirsl., Iniid-owners inisin.'iii.'ii^ed their vvoodlols, or did 
nol ni:in:i;i;e llieiii :il :dl. inslc.'id of Inking out i he dc'id nnd 
dyin^,, (he ero(»ked ;iiid inlerior, I ices niid linihs for firewood, Miey 
MioU|i;h( (he l)es(, (rees none (oo v^o<»d loi- (he lirepl.'ice. The hesl. 
trees of (he hesi kinds weic eu(, lor pos(s, fenee-r.-iils, fuel, nild 
olher inh-rioi' pniposes. ( 'onse(|uen( ly, (he vvoodlols were \vSt 
widi (he un<lesn;d>le .'Old useless (rees. There w.'i.s no (Jiou^hl. ns 
do (he new crop (<» (nke (he pl.'iee of iJie old one. ( ','d.(J<^ I'oairH^d 
in (he woodlols, ( r.-unplinji; (Jie soil .'ind deslioyin^ (Jie youn^; 
seedlinjiis. In (his unforluiniie (tondiliun we lind :i \:iv^y pnr(. of 
\,\\v woodlols (»n Anierie.-Mi ('.'urns (.o-d.*i.y. 'i'he lime h.-is now 
come when (he wood crop nnisl reeeiv<' :d(en(ion .'ind he ni.'uh^ 
produelive. 

Distinction between field crops and wood crops. While (he 
produels ol holh (ield juid vv(mkIIo(, nre Ijirni eiops, (hey h:i.ve nol. 
nnich in eoinnion. Wood crops n'(|uii-e ye.'irs To develop. I'hey 
do no( Imve si^ns lo show when Miey should be hnrvesl.ed. The 
wood rn)\) is nol. ne<'essnrily reproduced hy cu((ini!; jukI re-plnn( inj;", 
jis is usumI vvil h l.-uni crops, MllJiou^;h (Jus niMv he done. The wood 
crop is nol. ferl.ili/ed i\.\u\ (tuKivjilcd jis n.re lield crops. 

l''ie|(l (trops nre dependent, on I he weniher, while wood crops are 
FM)I, ^n'nlly .Mlh-cljMl hy (he w<':i(lier ;uid .'uc seld<Mn :i. (.o(.'i,l ^.M.ilu^^ 
'IMie work on I. he wood crop nniy he done ui nhnosl. n.ny I inie iA' year, 
wli(^r(!n,s ^;enernl (i<'ld ('rops denuuid nll.eiH.ion m.(. pM,r(.icular t-irjioa. 




Fig. 96. — The forest has overgrowth and undergrowth. (p 195) 



196 



AGRICULTURE 



The nature of the wood crop. — There is great variety in wood 
crops, as in field crops. There are many kinds of wood and 
many forms of growth. Conifers, or evergreens, as pines, spruce, 




Fig. 97. 



Sometimes trees are planted merely to break the force of the wind, 
windbreak protects the orchard. 



This 



hemlock, fir, larch, cedar, and the like, furnish building materials. 
They grow from seed only and require a long time to reach suitable 
size. Broad-leaved trees, as maple, oak, hickory, and chestnut, 



THE WOOD CROP 



197 



used for a variety of purposes, often are ready much sooner than 
conifers. They will reproduce by sprouting from the stump as well 
as from seed. 

The battle of the trees. — The forest is a society of trees. 
If we go into a high woods in winter, and look up, we shall 
see that the crowns of the trees fill all the space overhead. The 
large trees have struggled to get ahead of each other and to spread 
their tops in the Kght. The lower branches have been shaded off, 
and the long, clean trunk, or upward-stretching branches, with 

narrow crown lifted 
high in the air, has 
been developed. 

In an opening in 
the woods, where large 
trees have been taken 
out, we may find a 
heavy growth of 
bushes and whips, 
struggling to get ahead 
of one another and to 
occupy the best places. 
Those that have 
broken through the 
tangle below are rac- 
ing with each other 
to fill the open space with branches. When their branches meet 
and the crown is again formed, the shade deepens, and the weaker 
of the whips and saplings below will give up the battle and die. 
Some of the bushlike plants, however, continue to grow in dense 
shade ; but they are not the kinds that become large trees. 

The trees that forge ahead are said by the forester to be domi- 
nant; that is, they dominate or overshadow others. Those strug- 
gling just below are said to be intermediate. Still others, hope- 
lessly beaten and overtopped, are said to be suppressed. 




Fig. 98. — Transporting logs by sled. 



198 



AGRICULTURE 



Some kinds of trees, losing in tlu^ strugj>i(% are tolerant or shade- 
enduring. They are able to withstand tlu^ dense shade. They 
hold their places and wait patiently for the time when their immedi- 
mediate supcM'iors shall })e removed. Still other kinds do h(»st in 
shaded conditions, an<l never enter the severe struggle for the 
highest places. They will always l)(^ found among the lower- 
growing trees and busings in the woods. A forest, therefore, may 
have several stories of bushes and trees. 

The care of the woodlot. — If the farmer cuts the most valuable 
trees year after year, his woodlot will constantly become poorer. 




Fig. 99. — The transportation of logs l.y l)oth stoam cars and wator 



The trees that he does not want will tend to take the ])laces of 
those he cuts. 

In order to keej) the woodlot at its best, the dead, or dying, 
and undesirable trees should be removed for firewood, posts, poles, 
and similar uses, and only the mature trees cut for building pur- 
poses. The spaces thus left ojxni should be filled by natural 
growth or by i)lanted seedlings. The felled trees nuist be care- 
fully removed so as not to destroy seedlings. 

If the young growth is too dense, it may be necessary to remove 
some of the young trees. Sometimes it is desirable, also, to re- 



THE WOOD ('ROP 199 

move limbs or parts of trees that interfere witli the best growth 
of the tree itself or of others near it. When a person thins his 
vvoodlot he must have* in mind the best (k^velopment of the trees 
that are to be left. 

The woodlot should be protected from fire and from grazing and 
browsing animals. As firc^s are difficult to control after they have 
started, precautions nmst be taken to prevent them. If the wood- 
lot borders the railroad, a cleared strip along the roadside is a 
safeguard. Such strips, or '' fire lines," should be kept clean. 
Persons should })e warned against starting camp fires in the woods. 
In removing trees in winter, the brush should be piled and 
burned ; it should never be allowed to remain through the; 
summer. 

Cattle, sheep, goats, and hogs should not be allowed to run in 
the woodlot where a new growth is desired. I-iy eating the heaves 
and tramping the ground they destroy the young trees. Fre- 
quently woodlots are ruined by allowing stock to run in them. 

Forestry. — The raising of timber-crops, and tlie managein(Uit 
of forests, is known as " forestry." It is a great branch of agri- 
culture (or the producing of things from the land). It is recog- 
nized as such by the government in making tlu^ subjc^ct a part 
of the United States Department of Agriculture. In the heavily 
wooded regions, as in the East, forestry is important first of all 
in properly managing the forests; in the treeless n^gions, as in 
parts of the West, it is important in the planting of forests. 



Problem 153. If there are woodlots on the farms in your locality, toll 
whether they are on land that would be useful for farming purpos(^s if the 
trees were removed. Why have they been left, or [)lanted, on the land 
they occupy ? 

Problem 154. Ask the teacher to take the class on an excursion into 
the woods. Plan to visit two woodlots, if possible, one that has a heavy 
young growth and many large trees, and one in which cattle have browsed. 
Note the differenccis in th(; larg(^ and the small trees, and in the soil cover. 
In which is the soil cool and moist? 



200 AGRICULTURE 

Problem 155. Name all of the ways in which wood from the woodlots 
is used on the farms in your locality. Does it pay the farmer to keep his 
woodlot in good condition? 

Problem 156. Write a list of as many trees in the woodlot as you can 
name, and tell for what the wood of each is used. 

Problem. 157. During a heavy rain, when the bare hillsides wash, what 
becomes of the water that falls in the woodlot ? How long after the last 
snowfall have you found small patches of snow in the woods ? Is the fact 
that forests hold the snow and allow it to melt gradually of any importance 
to the farmer ? 

Problem 158. Of what timber is the school-house made ? Where did 
it come from? Of what is your residence made? Your barn? The 
fences ? 

Problem 159. What is the best timber for fence-posts? Why? 
Where do the fence-posts in your neighborhood come from? 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

FARM WEEDS 

Weeds are plants that are not wanted. They are out of place 
They may be either plants for which no use has ever been found, 
or those that are regularly cultivated on the farm. If they are a 
nuisance and are occupying space where they are not wanted, or 
that is needed by crops, they are weeds. 

The farmer has never found any use for thistles or ragweed. 
They creep into his fields and interfere with his growing crops. 
He thinks of them always as weeds. Daisies and buttercups have 
attractive flowers, but when they establish themselves in the 
farmer's hayfield among the timothy, they are undesirable weeds. 
When timothy, in return, appears in the flower-garden, it is just as 
bad a weed. It is not wanted there and is out of place. Potatoes 
may be weeds in cornfields, or corn may be a weed in potato fields. 

Why weeds grow. — If we go out on the farm to a plowed field 
that has lain idle for a year, we shall find that it is more or less 
covered with weeds. When the farmer ceased to give the field 
attention, Nature clothed it with herbage. Nature will not long 
allow the land to remain bare if it is possible to cover it. She is 
always ready with a seed to grow at the first opportunity. It is 
one of her practices to keep the earth covered, during the growing 
season, with some kind of plant. The plants that she establishes 
in our fields, however, we are likely to call weeds, because they 
usually come where we do not want them. 

Why weeds are objectionable. — As we learned in Chapter 
XVII, more seeds are produced by plants than can find room to 
grow on the surface of the earth. There is a struggle among them 
for room, and for place. 

201 



202 



AGRICULTURE 







Fig. 100. — A pigweed growing alone, showing spread- 
ing habit. The pigweed is a very common nuisance. 



of corn will be able to 



Weeds enter into 
this struggle. Al- 
ways having had 
to look out for 
themselves, with- 
out the aid of man, 
many of them have 
become vigorous 
and persistent, and 
will struggle hard 
to keep their places. 
Because they are 
useless to the farmer 
and tend to crowd 
out plants that he 
desires to grow, 
they are objection- 
able to him. 

Again, weeds re- 
quire the same kinds 
of food for growth 
that other plants 
need. When they 
grow in a field of 
corn, for example, 
they take from the 
soil both moisture 
and plant-food that 
the corn plants 
should have. They 
may take so much 
moisture that in a 
dry season the crop 
make only a short, stunted growth. 



.•• .---vfrf . 'I > 



FARM WEEDS 



203 



The greatest objection to weeds is that they take moisture and 
plant-food that the farmer's crops should have. 









S^jf^l^^b^^l 


m| 






W'm, .; - 


Ml 


WM 



Fig. 101. 



Pigweeds growing in a colony, showing narrow, erect growth from 
crowding. 



How weeds increase. — Weeds appear everywhere, and in great 
numbers. There is never a time when a farmer does not have 



204 



AGRICULTURE 



them to contoud with. Ho may spoiui iniu'h time in destroying 

thorn, but thoy soon appear again. 

AU of our oonimon weeds produce seeds, some of them in very 

gi'oat numbers. Others are too impatient to wait for the seeds, 

and diH'ing the growing season send out runners, as does the straw- 
berry, to start new ph\nts. (Grange hawk- 
weed, sometimes called paint-brush, is 
a weed of this kind. Its runners are 
below the surface of the soil, as they 
are in tlie case of blue-grass. They 
send lip new plants every two or three 
inches. 

Certain other weeds will grow from 
parts or pieces of root, so that if any of 
the root is left in the ground a new plant 
^^^ll spring up. Horse radish, for ex- 
ample, which may sometimes be a weed, 
will produce new plants from the very 
smallest pieces of root. 

When we add to the fact that weeds 
^^-ill grow from many parts of the plant, 
the additional facts (given in Chapter 
XVHl) that they employ almost every 
conceivable means of spreading their 
seeds, it is little wonder that they are 

Fig. 102. — Wild carrot, os- ^^O plentiful, 
tablishes itself in pastures _, , ,. , it- i 

and neglected fields. The control of weeds. — \\ ar can be 

waged against weeds most successfully 
when we know something of their habits, especially how long 
they live and how they spread. 

Annual weeds, that is, those that hve but one year, come up in 
the spring or smnmer, produce seed, and die in the autumn. They 
reproduce themselves only by seed. The seed Hves in the ground 
over winter and grows in the spring. If annual plants are not 




FARM WEEDS 



205 



allowed to produce seeds, therc^foro, thoy will be utterly destroyed. 
Such weeds are gotten rid of by cutting them before the seed has 
formed. 

Biennial weedn, or those that live for two years, produce roots, 
stems, and leaves the first year. The second year they produce 
blossoms and seeds. If they are mown before they have formed 
seed, they also will be destroyed. Cultivation 
in the fall will kill them. 

Perennial weeds, or those that live for more 
than two years, are not so easily controlled. 
If they are prevented from forming seeds, they 
still will grow from the roots. Each fall they 
die down to the ground, but in the spring send 
up new plants from the roots. The only way 
to get rid of them is to dig them up or to crowd 
them out by keeping the land tilled or occupied 
by other plants. 

Ridding the farm of weeds. — The best 
method of getting rid of weeds on the farm 
is by good farming. The man who has a well- 
planned crop rotation system, tills his crops 
at the right times, cuts the weeds in the fence-rows and other 
waste places, and keeps his land so much occupied with growing 
crops that there is neither time nor room for weeds to grow, will 
have httle trouble. 

Weeds are most easily destroyed when they are young. If they 
are not disturbed until after they have become well rooted, they 
cannot be removed by cultivation. They must then either be 
dug out with a hoe or pulled by hand. The farmer who runs a 
weeder or harrow lightly over his corn or potato field, just 
before or soon after the plants are up, will kill most of the 
weeds. 

To keep the land free from weeds the farmer must not sow them 
himself. Unfortunately, much of the seed of farm crops, especi- 




FiG. 103. — Canada 
thistle is one of the 
worst weeds on the 
farm. 



206 



AGRICULTURE 



ally of grasses, which is sold on the market is not clean and pure : 
that is, it contains large numbers of weed seeds. Frequently there 
are thousands of weed seeds of many kinds mixed with every 
quart of timothy or clover seed that is sold. The use of such un- 
clean seed is one of the most common means of establishing weeds 
on the farm. If the farmer does not know that his seed is free 
from weeds, he should either examine it himself or send it to the 
agricultural experiment station in the state. Prevention is better 
than cure. 

Lists of Weeds. — It is impossible here to name all the kinds 
of weeds ; but a small list, classified by length of hfe, may serve 
as a framework to which the pupil may add others that he knows : 



Annual Weeds 



Purslane, or " pussly " 

Pigweeds, of several kinds 

Smartweeds 

Mustard 

Ragweed 

Clotbur or Cocklebur 

Jimson weed 

False flax 

Buffalo bur 

Kinghead 
Russian thistle 
Pepper-grass 



Barnyard-grass 
Crab-grass 
Squirrel-tailgrass 
Chess 
Chickweed 
Dodder 
Cockle 
Mayweed 

Prickly lettuce (sometimes bien- 
nial) 
Shepherd's Purse 
Tarweed 
Tumbleweed 



Biennial Weeds 



Wild Carrot 

Mullein 

Burdock 

Bull or pasture thistle 



Wild parsnip 
Sweet clover 
Brown-eyed Susan 



FARM WEEDS 



207 



Perennial Weeds 



Quack-grass 

Johnson-grass 

Hawkweed 

Dandelion 

Poison ivy 

Sow-thistle 

Docks 

Canada thistle 

White daisy 

Plantains 



Golden rod 

Sorrel 

Buttercup 

Yarrow 

Bindweed 

Live-forever 

Man-root or Man-vine 

Coco-grass, or Nut-grass 

May-pop 

Sneezeweed 



Problem 160. Count the number of seeds on a ripe dandelion head. 
Also count the number of seed stalks which one plant will produce. If 
the plant produces five seed heads, or balls, in one year, and each head 
contains two hundred seeds, how many plants could be produced in five 
years from one plant? How many do you suppose could be produced 
in one year from all the dandelions in your neighborhood if they could 
find a place to grow ? 

Problem 161. Name four of the common weeds in your locality, and 
tell where they grow and how they spread. Can you name one annual, 
one biennial, and one perennial ? 

Problem 162. How may weeds be kept out of the meadow? 

Problem 163. What weeds are most common in the cornfield? In the 
wheatfield ? the meadow ? the pasture ? 

Problem 164- Do the best farmers in your neighborhood have many or 
few weeds in their fields ? Do those that have few weeds practice crop 
rotation ? Can we judge of the success of a man by the weeds on his farm ? 



CHAPTER XXIX 

INSECT ENEMIES OF PLANTS 

Plants are not free to live their lives undisturbed. Not only 
must they struggle for room, light, moisture, and plant-food, but 
they are constantly besieged by an innumerable army of enemies. 
Weeds try to crowd out and take away their food-supply. Insects 
come upon them to eat them up or sap their life blood. Diseases 
come to weaken and destroy whatever they lay hold on. 

Of these enemies, none brings greater devastation to tKe^ 
farmer's plants than insects. In a single year, they destroy 
$700,000,000 worth of crops in the United States alone. This 
is more than all the money spent by our national government. 
It is an enormous sum to pay for the support of this destructive 
army. How to protect his crops and reduce this expense, is one 
of the greatest i)rol)lcms the farmer has to face. 

There are many kinds of insects. — Nearly every kind of farm 
plant has at least one insect enemy. There are enemies of vege- 
table crops, others of grain crops, fruit crops, forest or wood crops, 
and all the list of farm plants. 

Some crops have very many insect enemies, each of which causes 
injuries in its own way. The apple is one of these. The small 
brown bud-moth devours the tender leaves and flowers of the 
opening buds in early spring. It is assisted by the case-bearers 
and the tent-caterpillars. Later the leaves may be attacked by 
canker-worms and leaf blister-mites. The fruit may be visited 
by the codling-moth and the apple-maggot, which bore their 
tunnels through it and make the apples '' wormy." The San Jos4 
scale, oyster-shell scale, and scurfy scale, live on the trunk and 

208 



INSECT ENEMIES OF PLANTS 



209 



branches, sapping out the juices. The San Jose scale also 
fastens itself on the fruit. Into the trunk the round-headed 
borer eats his way 
and adds to the 
destruction. 

Fortunately for 
the apple grower, 
not all of these 
enemies are likely 
to fall upon his 
trees in the same 
year, at least not 
in dangerous num- 
bers. But some of 
them will always be 
present to weaken 
his trees and reduce 
his crop unless he 
is able to prevent 
them. 

The fruit-grower 
is troubled most by 
t'he ins[ects just 
named for the 
apple, also with the 
aphis, curculio, leaf- 
hopper, flea-beetle, 
and pear psylla. 

The more common insect enemies which the grain farmer has to 
fight are the cutworm, root-worm, chinch-bug, grasshopper, hes- 
sian fly, and army-worm. 

The vegetable-grower has to contend with the potato beetle, 
cabbage-worm, cabbage aphis, striped cucumber beetle, plant- 
lice, flea-beetle, and white grubs. 




Fig. 



104. — A tree almost stripped of its leaves by cater- 
pillars, which are biting or chewing insects. 



210 



AGRICULTURE 



Nature helps the farmer. — The farmer is not alone in his fight 

against insect pests. Nature lends him aid that accomplishes 

more than anything he can do. Strong winds, sudden changes 

of temperature in winter, rains, and forest and prairie fires destroy 

^ V vast numbers of insects. Many birds feed largely 

on insects, and numbers too great to be counted 

are destroyed by them every year. Birds are 

really among the farmer's best friends. 

But, strangely enough, the insect enemies of the 
farmer find their greatest foes among their own 
kind. Some insects prey upon others. A httle 
lady-bird beetle saved the citrous orchards in 
Cahfornia by destroying a scale insect that was 
ruining them. It would not be possible to gi:ow 
wheat in many parts of the United States if it 
were not for little insect friends of the farmer 
that prey upon the hessian fly. 

The farmer's methods. — Man cannot depend 
on Nature to defend his crops, but must enter the 
* *®e) a conflict himself. For centuries he has been fight- 

13 A m. ing insects. The ancient Greeks mixed heflebore 
with milk to kill flies. The Romans required the 
inhabitants in regions that were overrun with 
grasshoppers to kill certain quantities of them. 
In the Middle Ages, priests marched around 
fields that were infested, praying and pronounc- 
^^!^^'J \ ing curses on the pests; or the insects were sum- 
''«j.fcf<^ moned to appear in court and told to leave the 

Fig. 105. -Ex- country. 

ample of a'suck- The farmer of to-day is beset, by so many pests 
ing insect. San ^j^^^ ^le has to use more active means than these. 

Jose scales (en- 

larged) at- His present methods of defense are of three general 
tachedtoatwig kjnds : (1) hand, or mechanical methods ; (2) farm 

and drawing the 

juices from it. practices; (3) spraying with poisons. 



INSECT ENEMIES OF PLANTS 



211 







(1) Hand, or mechanical, methods. — Insects are gathered and 
destroyed by very many different kinds of hand methods. Some- 
times they are merely picked by hand, as potato beetles in the 
garden patch. Sticky pans may be drawn across fields to collect 
grasshoppers, or held near grape 
vines and the leaf-hoppers jarred 
into them. Sticky bands placed 
about trees will catch large num- 
bers of canker-worm moths as 
they crawl up the trunks. Sheets 
may be placed under small plum 
trees and the trees jarred so that 
the curculio insects will fall into 
them. Strips of tar poured along 
small ridges plowed up all about a 
field will prevent chinchbugs from 
passing. 

Many other hand, or mechan- ;'?ye.7i ^- a i <"W \ 
ical, methods are employed. They (OT||i # b%y' \ ^^\v\ 
are most useful in small areas or ^'li^^ f -C ^^ ^^'^ ^ ' * V 

gardens. Fig. 106. — The moths of canker- 

(2) Farm practices. — We have 
learned that crop rotation helps 
to destroy weeds. It also helps to destroy insects which attack 
such crops as corn, clover, wheat, and potatoes. When the 
insects find their favorite crop gone and replaced by one they do 
not hke, they are without food and starve to death. 

Good tillage destroys many insects and grubs that live in the 
soil, such as wire worms and white grubs. Canker-worms, which 
attack fruit trees, live in the soil part of the time during their de- 
velopment, and are easily killed by tillage. 

Sometimes crops can be planted early enough so that they will 
be able to resist the attacks of insects when they come. Or strips 
of the crop may be sown around or near the field to attract the 






worms stopped by sticky bandlin 
their progress up a tree. 



212 



AGRICULTURE 





attention of the on-coming pests. Such strips are called '' trap 
crops " because they are planted to entrap, or catch, the insects. 
While the insects are working on the strips, the farmer] destroys 
them. 

One of the best methods of protecting crops from their enemies 
is to keep the farm clean ; that is, to burn up all weeds, rubbish, 
cabbage stumps, old vines, tree prunings, and the like, so that the 
insects will have fewer places in which to live over winter. 

(3) Spraying with poisons. — Farmers have found that one of 
the best methods of protecting their crops is to spray them with 

poisons that will kill 
the pests. In order to 
spray successfully, they 
must know something 
about the insect they 
desire to kill. 

Insects secure their 
food in one of two 
ways. Some of them, 
as caterpillars and po- 
tato beetles, are pro- 
vided with strong jaws 
which enable them to 
bite off and swallow 
solid pieces or particles of their food-plant. They are called biting 
insects. Others, as plant-lice, scale insects, and mosquitoes, do 
not have jaws for biting and chewing, but are provided instead 
with long, tulxvlike mouth parts. These they force into the tissues 
of their food-plants, and suck their food. They are called sucking 
insects. 

Biting insects can b(^ killed by covering the leaves of the plants 
they attack with poison. When they clu^w the leaves, they get the 
poison and die. Sucking insects, which secure all their food from 
inside of the plant tissues, are not disturbed by any poison that is 






^^i*.J..>i^ 






Fig. 107. 



■ A large spraying outfit operated by hand 
power. For use in orchards. 








INSECT ENEMIES OF PLANTS 213 

on the surface. In order to destroy them, it is necessary to spray 
at such a time that the poison will be placed directly on the bodies 
of the insects themselves. 
When they are ^^ hit " by 
the poison spray, they are 

The kinds of poisons i^*^---^ 
to use. — Most of the 
biting insects are killed 
by poisons that contain 

arsenic. Such poisons Fig. 108. — Sugar-beets attacked by the potato 
are sold under the names ^°^^ disease. The fungus of this disease lives in 

the ground from year to year and may injure 
arsemte Ot soda, arsemte other vegetables beside potatoes. 

of lime, and arsenate of 

lead. Some other kinds that do not contain arsenic, as Paris 

green and hellebore, will also destroy biting insects. 

Sucking insects are killed by poisonous powders, oils, soaps, and 
other special mixtures. The best known powder is the ordinary 
insect powder. Substances known as whale-oil soap, fish-oil soap, 
kerosene emulsion, and lime-sulfur wash are commonly used 
against the sucking insects. 

Spraying. — Poisons used for spraying, except some that are 
powders, are apphed in a liquid form. Usually the poison is dis- 
solved in water. The spray mixture, as it is then called, is placed 
in a tank, from which }t is forced by a pump through a hose having a 
nozzle at the far end. This nozzle breaks the mixture into a fine spray 
or mist. By having the spray fine, the foliage of the plant or tree 
is covered more thoroughly and with less quantity of the mixture. 

The farmer needs to know when to spray his crops, and which kind 
of spray to use in order to protect his plants from particular insects. 

Problem 165. Name three insects that the farmer must fight against, 
and tell what each attacks. 

Problem 166. Describe the different methods of destroying insects that 
are used by the farmers in your locality. 



214 AGRICULTURE 

Problem 167. Can you tell what insects breed in low, wet places ? > 
Problem 168. If any of the farmers in your locality spray, for what in- 
sects do they spray ? What poisons do they use ? What crops do they 
spray ? 

Problem 169. Have any crops on your father's farm, or a neighbor's 
farm, ever been entirely ruined by insects ? When ? By what insects ? 
How much did the loss of the crop cost the farmer ? 



CHAPTER XXX 



DISEASES OF PLANTS 



Plants, like animals, have diseases that disable or kill them. 
Almost every plant that is cultivated, be it vegetable, grass, grain, 
fruit or forest tree, has one or more diseases to which it is subject. 

There are diseases of the 
roots, others of the stem, 
others of the leaves and 
fruits. Sometimes the 
entire plant is weakened 
or destroyed, and at other 
times only the part that 
is diseased. 

The nature of plant 
diseases. — Most of the 
diseases of plants are 
caused by fungi. These, 
as we have already learned, 
are plants of a low order. 
Many of them live either 
wholly within other plants 
or on their surfaces. In 
the latter case, they send 
their thread-like roots in 
search of food into the 
tissues of the plant. Be- 
cause they Uve wholly at 

Fig. 109. — Corn attacked by the smut disease, the expense of others, they 

215 




216 .AGRICULTURE 

are called parasites. The plants on which they live are spoken 
of as their hosts. 

The fungi are very different from other plants. They bear no 
flowers, and consequently never produce seeds like those of flower- 
ing plants. They do produce httle bodies called spores, which 
answer the same purpose as seeds. The cloud of dust or smoky 
powder that rises from the puffball that we kick as we walk through 
the cow pasture is composed of spores. The puffball is a fungus, 
and its smoke consists of millions of spores from which other puff- 
balls may grow. 

The fungi which ca\i^e disease in plants are parasites. They live 
on or within the tissues of other plants, and in exchange for their 
food-supply, or rather in securing it, produce disease in their 
hosts. ^^ 

We have all seen rotten apples, or peaches, or oranges. These 
fruits are diseased. Fruit rot is a disease. So also is scab on 
potatoes, smut in wheat, oats, or corn, blight of pears and 
apples, club-root of cabbage, curl of peach leaves, and wilt of 
cotton. 

How plant diseases spread. — The light spores of fungi are car- 
ried by wind, water, and insects from one place to another. They 
alight on the surfaces of plants, or in wounds, cracks, and crevices. 
If they find suitable conditions of food and moisture, they will 
begin to grow, working their way into the plant tissues from the 
outside. 

Some diseases live in the soil and attack the roots. Plants that 
are grown on such soils become diseased if they are subject to the 
kind of disease that is present. When taken to other places such 
plants carry the disease with them, and the soil in the new field 
becomes infected. Tools that are used in these soils carry the 
disease. 

The fruit-grower may spread disease by means of his tools 
also. When he cuts away a diseased branch with a knife or 
saw, the spores may be left on the blade. Then, when he cuts 



DISEASES OF PLANTS 217 

away a healthy branch, the disease may be deposited on the 
fresh surface left by the saw. 

Plant diseases are frequently spread by spores on the seeds of 
crops. We have seen the black or smutty heads of wheat and 
oats as they stand in the field. These black heads are diseased, 
and are filled with spores. When the grain is threshed, the cloud 
of black dust that rises as it passes through the thresher consists 
of these spores. The dust settles on the grain as it comes from 
the machine. When any of this grain is planted, the disease is 
present to develop in the growing plant. 

The fact that many plant diseases are contagious, or '' catch- 
ing," is well shown in the apple and potato bins. One rotten 
apple or potato may in time spread decay to all the others in the bin. 

Diseases must be prevented. — Since the fungi that cause plant 
diseases draw their food from within the tissues of their hosts, they 
are not greatly disturbed by any poison placed on the surface of 
the plant after they have become established. They must be 
prevented, for they seldom can be cured. Several means of pre- 
vention are in use, about some of which we shall now learn. 

Rubbish should be burned. — Every diseased leaf, branch, fruit, 
or vine bears millions of spores, a single one of which can convey 
the disease to a new plant. These parts should be gathered and 
burned. The diseased limbs that are cut from fruit trees should 
not be allowed to lie in the orchard, but should be burned at once. 
The stumps of cabbages that have been attacked by club-root 
should be raked together and destroyed by burning. Keeping the 
farm clean of all such rubbish is the farmer's first step in protecting 
his crops. 

Clean, vigorous seed should be used. — The second step is to 
plant seed that is both clean and vigorous. Strong plants that 
are grown from vigorous seeds are as much more likely to resist 
disease as are strong boys and girls. 

Seed that has already been infected with spores may be made 
clean by certain kinds of treatment or disinfection. Before it is 



218 



AGRICULTURE 



planted, it may be dipped into a chemical solution that will kill 
the spores. The solution most commonly used is known as 
formalin, or formaldehyde. Some diseases will be destroyed by 




Fig. 110. — Potatoes that were not sprayed and have been destroyed by the 
potato-blight disease. 



suspending the seed, inclosed in a sack, for a few minutes in a tub 
of hot water. 

This method of prevention is used for crops that are grown from 
seeds, and that are difficult to spray in the field. The seeds of 
grains, millet, flax, onions, and potatoes are often so treated. 

Spraying is the most common method. — If all of the surfaces 
of a plant are covered with a thin film of poison before the spores 
arrive, they will offer a very unsafe home for the spores. Destruc- 



DISEASES OF PLANTS 



219 



tion will be in store for them wherever they alight. The poison 
may be in the form of powder and be dusted on. More commonly, 
however, it is a liquid, and has been sprayed on in much the same 
way as is done for insects. If the spray is applied after the spores 




Fig. 111. — Potatoes sprayed as a protection against blight. Does it pay to spray? 



arrive, it will keep them from spreading to other parts of the plant, 
or to other plants. 

A long list would be necessary to name all the diseases for which 
spraying is the common remedy. We may name a few of them : 
apple scab, leaf-spot, asparagus rust, onion mildew, celery blight, 
cucumber blight, black rot of grapes, lemon scab, lettuce leaf-rot, 
orange scab, peach scab, peach leaf-curl, pear scab, potato blight, 
and potato rot. 



220 AGRICULTURE 

A spray mixture that is used to destroy the spores of plant 
diseases is called a fungicide. The word means a substance that 
will kill fungi. The fungicide used more than all others is Bor- 
deaux mixture. It consists of lime and another chemical called 
copper sulfate or blue vitriol, dissolved in water. Another com- 
mon fungicide is lime-sulfur. It is a mixture of hme and sulfur 
mixed in certain proportions in water. 

Other methods of prevention. — Fruit trees are attacked by 
many kinds of diseases. When large limbs have been pruned off, 
spores may settle on the fresh wounds and cause decay to appear. 
If the cut surface is coated with paint, tar, wax, or some other sub- 
stance, the spores may be prevented from entering. Farmers 
who do not take this precaution often lose valuable trees. 

Rotation of crops will lessen inj ury from those diseases that liye^ 
in the soil. Usually such diseases will attack the roots of only 
one or two kinds of plants. If these plants are not grown on the 
land for a few years, the spores in the ground will die. 

A farmer will sometimes find that one variety of wheat or potatoes 
or cotton will not be greatly injured by disease, while another 
variety on his farm, or a neighbor's, will suffer very much. He 
discovers that some varieties of plants are able to resist disease 
much more successfully than others. By planting each year the 
seed from the variety that is injured the least he may greatly 
reduce his losses. Some persons are now spending much time 
trying to develop varieties of crops that can wholly resist the 
attacks of disease. 



Prohlem 170. Collect and bring to school as many different diseased 
plants or parts as you can find — potatoes, grains, fruits, trees, etc. Note 
what part of the plant is attacked in each case. Find the spores. 

Problem 1 71 . Dip a match in the mold on a rotting apple, or other fruit, 
and draw it across a slice of moistened bread. Set the bread in a damp place 
for a few days and watch it. How did the mold which appears come to 
be there ? Did you plant the spores ? Where does the mold get its nour- 
ishment ? 



DISEASES OF PLANTS 221 

Problem 172. Name the diseases which injure crops in your locality. 
If you do not know, ask your father. 

Problem 173. Find out, and explain to the class, what methods are used 
in your locality to prevent diseases from spreading. 

Problem 174- Give as many reasons as you can why a farmer should not 
allow weeds, limbs, roots, and other kinds of rubbish to Ue scattered over 
his farm. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

THE IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS 

Man is able to modify, or change, plants. The ancestors of all 
our cultivated plants Hved originally in a wild state, but in many 
cases were quite unhke our present forms. The changes made by 
man have been in the nature of improvements, so that the culti- 
vated plants might better serve his needs. The large, juicy garden 
strawberry is greatly improved over its wild ancestor. So also is the 
large garden blackberry over its small wild form found in neglected^ 
fields. 

How the improvement has come about. — In wild conditions, all 
plants struggle for a place to five, and for food and moisture. Fre- 
quently they appear in places where they cannot do their best and 
must adapt themselves to the unfavorable conditions about them. 

Cultivated plants are spared much of this struggle. Instead of 
being planted in a tangle, each crop is by itself and each plant among 
its own kind, the individual plants are placed where they can grow 
best and with least interference from others. Competing plants 
(weeds) are kept away. The soil is specially prepared for them, 
and if it is lacking in fertihty, plant-food is added. Moisture 
may be added directly, or saved for the plants by a surface mulch. 
The farmer reduces the struggle for existence among his crops so 
far as possible, and tries to make the conditions for growth perfect. 
All of these advantages, which constantly stimulate plants to do 
their best, have gradually modified the cultivated forms from their 
ancestors. In some cases the changes have been great, in others 
not so great. 

There is another reason why plants have improved in cultivation. 

222 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS 



223 



No two plants, or parts of plants, are exactly alike. If we com- 
pare any two plants of the same kind ever so closely, we shall find 
that they differ from each other. The difference may be in size, 
form, color, mode of branching, number of leaves, number of 
flowers or fruits, vigor, season of ripening, or other factors. 




Fig. 112. 



The improvement brought about by domestication, 
on the left, garden blackberries on the right. 



Wild blackberries 



From the beginning man has taken advantages of these differ- 
ences. The plants which showed some quality or character- 
istic which made them more useful to him were chosen for the new 
crop. This long-continued choice of the best has been the means of 
much improvement in plants. 

The differences have great value. — The differences among 
plants of the same kind are spoken of as '■" variations " ; that is, 



224 



AGRICULTURE 



the plants vary or differ from one another. The fact that plants 
vary is of great importance in all efforts to improve them. If they 




Fig. 113. — No two plants are alike. These corn plants are all of the same variety, but 
show great differences in the position of the ears. There is room for improvement. 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS 



225 




did not vary, but held 
steadfastly to a particular 
form or type, they could not 
be changed or improved. It 
is because plants do vary 
that the farmer is able to 
select some from the others, 
and so to improve his crops. 

Means of improvement. 
— Two methods of improv- 
ing plants are in use. One 
is gradually to modify the 
forms that now exist, so as 
to estabhsh, or ''fix," them 
and to make them more 
useful. The other is to 
create new kinds that will 
be better than the types 
now raised. 

Improving present types. 
— Let us suppose that the 
farmer wishes to improve 
his corn crop. He must 
first have in mind what he 
wants to accomplish — to 
develop longer ears or 
heavier ears, more ears to 
the plant, earlier maturity, 
or some other quality. 
With his ideal in mind, he 
will go over his cornfield 
while the corn is growing 
and select the plants that 
most nearly resemble the 



226 



AGRICULTURE 



ideal. He will mark them so as to harvest them separately and 
save the seed. 

The next year, the seed of his chosen plants will be sown by itself, 
away from any other cornfield, so that the new crop may not be 
mixed with any other variety. This field will be gone over before 
harvest, as in the first year, in order to select the plants in it that 
are nearest the ideal. Some of them will be nearer than in the 
first year. 

From the second year's crop, grown from the seed selected during 
the first year, only that seed will be saved which comes from the 

best plants, those that are nearest to the 
type that is wanted. Year after year this 
selection and planting of the best will go 
on until the farmer has developed the 
type that he desired; that is, until Tie 
has improved his crop up to his ideal. 

This method of improving crops is 
called '^ selection.'' It should be used by 
every farmer. The one who always 
chooses his best for his next year's seeding 
will grow better crops each year. 

Creating new types. — Let us sup- 
pose that in our locality two varieties 
of corn are grown. One produces larger 
ears than the other, but the second one 
matures earlier than the first. The farmer may wish to have 
a variety that will have large ears and also will mature early. 
He desires to combine in one plant the best qualities of the 
two. How shall he do it? 

We know that if the kernels of corn are to be developed, pollen 
from the tassels must fall on the silks, which are part of the pistils of 
the corn plant. When the pollen from one plant falls on the pistils 
of the same plant, the same sort or variety of corn will be produced. 
If the pollen from a different plant falls on the silks, the kernels of 




Fig. 115. — A simple honic- 
made seed-tester. Two 
plates and two pieces of can- 
ton flannel. Blotting paper 
will serve as well as flannel. 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS 



227 



corn will combine the qualities of both plants, or parents, in some 
measure, and the offspring will show some of these qualities. 

If the farmer places the pollen from the variety of corn that ma- 
tures early on the silks of the variety that has large ears, the charac- 
ters of both plants will probably be represented in the seed that is 
formed. When this seed is planted the first year, it may show 
some of the qualities of both parents. Most hkely it will resemble 
one parent much more closely than the other. 

This seed is planted for the second year's crop. When the time 
comes for the silks 
to receive pollen, 
the tassels will be 
cut off, or covered, 
so that none of the 
pollen of the same 
plant can fall on 
the silks. Pollen 
from the other par- 
ent, the one that 
appears least in the 
new plant, must be 
placed on the silks. 
The plants from the 
seed that results 
from this second 
crossing should approach the ideal type somewhat more closely 
than that from the first year. This operation will be continued 
year after year, until the desired type is secured. 

When two varieties are mixed in this way, they are said to 
be " crossed." Crossing is the most important means of plant 
improvement. 

Plant-breeding. — The changing of plants by man for the pur- 
pose of producing certain desired results is " plant-breedinjj^.'^ 
Every farmer should be a plant-breeder to the extent of improving 




Fig. 116. — Another simple home-made tester. 



228 ACUUriLTrHE 

his variotios by moans of selection : but it is from professional 
])lant-breeders that we are to expect most of the new varieties and 
new types. 

ProhUni 17\k If there are wiUl stra\vl>orries, raspberries, black- 
berrit^s. or apples in your locality, compare tlicin witii the kinds that are 
cultivated. I'xplaiu what the differences arc. 

Problem 176. Compare two plants of any kind of crop urown on your 
farm. Tell in what respects they ditYcr from each other. Can you find 
any two that arc exactly alike".' 

Problem 17:. Find out whether any farmers in your locality arc trying 
to improve their crops cither by selection or by i-rossiui;-. Ask them to ex- 
plain just what they arc doini>;. 

Problem 1 7S. Ask your father for a small piece of land, on which to begin 
an experiment to improve the crop that is raised most lariicly on your farm. 
If yours is a fruit farm, plant ])otatoes or corn or small grain. Each year 
select your best seed for the next year's crop, and ask your father to plant 
all of the other seed from your plot by itself in his field cro}). Notice from 
year to year whether better croits arc secured from >-our seed than from 
yoiu" father's. 

Problem 179. Seed testing. One of the means of improving plants is 
to ]-»lant only seed that is strong and \igorous, and will make a healthy 
growth. Much of the seed on the market is poor, and some of it either will 
not grow when planted or will make only a weak growth. In order to know 
whether your seed is strong and healthy, it should be tested. 

For this purpose, the seed should be germinated or sprouted. The sim- 
plest device in which to germinate the seed ccMisists of a pie pan covered with 
a square pane of glass m* by another pan. This device is suitable only for 
small seeds, as the clovers, grasses, and flower seeds. One hundred seeds 
an^ placed on a piece of clean blotting paper which has been moistened with 
water. Another moist blotter is placed over this. The cover should fit 
tightly over the pan in order that none of the water may escape. If the 
blotters slunild become dry in a few days, a \ery small amount of water 
should be applied. When the sprouts on most of the seeds are one-fourth 
to one inch long, the ones which have germinated should be counted. 
This will gi^•e the iH^'centage of germination. If the test shows a low per- 
centage of live seeds, the seeds should be discarded or a larger amount sown 
on a given area. From 90 per cent to 9o per cent germination is con- 
sidered good for most seeds. 

For testing corn, beans, melons, and other seeds of equal size, take a box 



TllK IMPROVEMENT OF J^LANTS 229 

of" any convenient size, about four in(;h(!S deejj. Fill it on(;-half full of 
sawdust which has boon moistened thoroughly. Over this tack a piece of 
cheese cloth marked off in squares. For testing ears of corn, these squares 
should be numbered. The numbers should correspond with numbers at- 
tached to the ears of corn. The numbered ears of corn should be arranged 
consecutively and placed where they will not be disturbed until the test is 
finished. Take up ear No. I. Remove two kernels of corn from near the 
tip ; turn the ear one-third around and remove two more kernels from the 
center. Now turn it around another third of the distance and r(;move two 
kernels from near the butt. Place these kernels on the sfjuare numbered 1 
on the cloth. Continue this operation until all the ears are represented in 
the germinator, one in each square. Place another piece of thin muslin 
over the grains of corn, allowing it to extend up the sides of the box for 
some distance. Fill a sack, made to fit snugly in the box, with damp 
sawdust. Press this down tightly over the corn and set the box where there 
will be no danger of freezing or disturbance. In mild weather the corn will 
germinate within a week. Some will probably germinate 100 per cent, while 
others will be less than this. The sprouts on some will be weak, while those 
on others will b(; strong. It is safe to take these typical kernels as an index 
of what the whole ear would do if planted. Therefore, if the test is unsatis. 
factory in respect to any ear, this ear should be discarded at planting time- 
If shelled corn or other loose seeds are tested in this germinator, one 
hundred seeds should be used, as in the case of the pie tin. At least 85 per 
cent should germinate strongly or the seed should be rejected. 



PART IV 
FARM ANIMALS 



CHAPTER XXXII 

THE NEEDS OF FARM ANIMALS 

Farm animals are kept for what they can add to the farmer's 
comfort, pleasure, and income. We may call them productive 
agents because they must return certain products to their owner. 
The products which they return will vary with the different classes 
of animals. Horses return labor ; cattle return milk, hides, meat, 
and sometimes labor ; sheep yield wool and meat ; swine return 
lard and pork ; poultry return eggs, meat, and feathers. 

In order that animals may be productive, they must receive 
such care and attention as will keep them in the best condition 
for work. If this care is not given, they still may live ; but they 
are not likely to return a profit to their owner. Attention must be 
given to their food, air, shelter, rest, and exercise, which are their 
more important requirements for existence and service. 

Food requirements. — We may hken an animal to a machine, 
which, in the performance of its work, receives wear and tear in 
its various parts. As coal is shoveled in at the furnace door to 
make the energy to turn the great wheels of the machine, so must 
food be taken into the body to supply energy and replace waste 
that results from using the body. The food requirements of farm 
stock demand more attention from the owner than any of the 
other needs. 

We readily understand that a horse at hard work must have 
an abundance of the right kinds of food to keep his body in good 
condition. Perhaps we have not realized that in a similar way it 
is a tax on a cow to give a large flow of milk. It is hkewise a tax 
on sheep to produce wool, and on hens to lay eggs. To produce 

233 



234 AGRICULTURE 

wool and eggs is a form of effort or work; and it uses up energy. 
Abundant food is as necessary in one case as in another. 

Foods are given for two purposes : to maintain or support the 
animal, and to lay up an extra or reserve supply for the work the 
animal has to do. All profit comes from the reserve supply, that 
which the animal may use for work. The maintenance ration ^ 
alone merely keeps the animal alive. To realize a profit on animals, 
there must be food for growth and reproduction, as Avell as service, 
in addition to mere sustenance. When stock, as beef cattle, swine, 
and some kinds of poultry, are reared for meat, the reserve supply 
enables them to fatten rapidly, so as to be ready for market in the 
shortest possible time. In the draft animal, the reserve supply 
keeps the muscles in repair and provides the energy for action. 
In the cow, the reserve supply produces milk; in the sheep, Jt^ 
produces wool as well as mutton. 

To satisfy the animal's needs, the maintenance ration must 
provide the materials out of which the body is created and by which 
it may be sustained. If we study the composition of the animal 
body we shall find these materials to be mineral matter, nitrogenous 
matter (containing nitrogen), and fat. 

Water. — There is much water' in all parts of the body. Often 
one half of the body is water. It becomes part of all bone and 
flesh. It is used to carry, or transport, the building material, just 
as it is in plants. The blood is largely water. Water also helps 
to remove the waste or worn-out parts from the body. Animals 
require at all times an abundant supply of good drinking water. 

The mineral matter in the body is found chiefly in the bones. 
From 2 to 5 per cent of the body is mineral, which is supplied 
to animals in their food. It comes from the mineral parts of 
plants, and is supplied to plants by the soil. 

Nitrogenous matter is the name given to substances containing 
nitrogen. Flesh, skin, muscle, hair, wool, horn, hoof, feathers, 

^ The quantity, or portion, of food that is given to an animal in one day, is 
spoken of as a ration. 



THE NEEDS OF FARM ANIMALS 



235 




blood, lean meat, 
white of egg, and 
curd of milk are 
rich in nitrogen. 

We know that 
all green plants 
require nitrogen in 
their growth. 
Some of this ni- 
trogen is found in 
every part of the 
plant, in the roots, 
leaves, stalks, and 
fruits or grains. 
When the plants 
or grains are fed 
to stock they pro- 
vide the required 
nitrogenous matter. 

Fat is reserve food, or that laid by for special or later use. The 
amount of it in the body will vary with the age of the animal, the 
work it does, and the kinds and amounts of food given. The 
lean animal seldom contains less than 5 per cent, and the fattest 
seldom exceeds 30 per cent. 

Fat-producing materials are usually given to animals in the form 
in which they occur in plants ; that is, in the form of starches and 
sugars. The chemist calls these materials carbohydrates, because 
they are made from carbon and water. Carbohydrates make up 
the larger part of dried plants, including all kinds of hay and 
fodder, and are abundant in roots and grains. Within the animal 
body, the carbohydrates are changed into fat. 

Uses of nitrogenous matter and fat. — The nitrogenous parts of 
plants, which are commonly called protein or proteids, build up 
the working parts of the body. They may be called muscle- 



FiG. 117. — Animals re-iviin' drinking water. It may be 
kept before them at all times in individual troughs 
or pans. 



236 AGRICULTURE 

makers, although they have other uses as well. They enter into 
many of the products of animals. When cows are kept for milk, 
sheep for wool, horses for work, and jijCH'se for fc^athers, they should 
be j2;iven foods, or rations, containing considcTable nitrogen, as it is 
required for all of these products. It also enters into the compo- 
sition of fat in milk and meat. It can perform the same use, or 
function, as fat, when necessary. 

Fat keeps the body warm, and, in part, supplies the energy 
which ena})les the muscles to work. All the higher farm animals 
are warm-blooded. They receive their body heat from their food. 
That is why most animals consume more food in cold weather than 
in hot weather. Esquimaux and other people who live in very cold 
climates subsist almost wholly on fatty meats and oils. They 
need heat-giving foods to keep them warm. 

The nitrogenous, or proteid, matter and the carbohydrates, which 
may include the fats, are the food elements that the farmer must 
provide for his stock. He seldom needs to supply mineral matter, 
as only a small quantity of it is needed and all plants contain it. 

Air. — Air is as necessary to the animal as to the plant. All of 
the activities in the body would cease, and the animal would die, if 
air were not provided. Energy is supplied by a burning of the 
tissues in the animal body, just as it is created in the steam engine 
by the burning of hwl. Neither the fire in the engine nor the 
burning in the animal body can take place without air. This 
burning is called " oxidation," because it is brought about by the 
action of oxygen from the air on the animal tissues. The burning 
of wood is also oxidation, as oxygen is then acting on the dried 
plant tissues. 

A single cow reciuin^s, in twenty-four hours, 3125 cubic feet of 
air, or as much as would be contained in a box-stall about 18 feet 
by 17^ feet by 10 f(K^t. Stables are not built to allow this much 
space for each animal, however, so that fresh air must be provided 
continually by ventilation. Twice as much air space should be 
furnished in the horse stabk; as in the cow stable. One cubic foot 



THE NEEDS OF FARM ANIMALS 



237 



of air space for each pound of live animal kept in the stable is a 
good proportion. When one half or one fourth this amount is pro- 
vided, as is often the case, the air must frequently be changed. 
Shelter. — Animals, like people, are most useful when they are 
happy and comforta})le. They can then do their best. Good 




hid. 118. — A stubl(3 thcit provides room, .sunli^lit, and ventilation. 

quarters must be provided for all farm stock. The buildings must 
afford shelter from storm, protection from excessive heat and 
cold, proper ventilation, and sufficient sunshine to keep them 
bright and fresh and dry. Too often the ventilation and the 
sunshine are not provided for. Under such conditions the ani- 
mals cannot keep vigorous and healthy, as they should in order 
to return the largest profit to their owners. 



238 



AGRICULTURE 



Rest. — Animals need rest periods, and comfortable quarters for 
resting should be furnished. Rest is as necessary for them as for 
vigorous boys and girls. There must be time to relax the muscles, 
to allow all of the vital activities in the body to subside from 
the increased demands of work, and to repair the broken down 
tissues. 

It has been found that a steer produces 30 to 50 per cent more 
heat when standing than when lying down. As this heat must 




Fig. 11<^. — Auiinals need exercise. 



come from the burning up of food, there is so much less energy for 
useful work or fattening. This shows that it pays to provide 
comfortable quarters and good beds for the farm stock. 

Exercise. — Exercise is essential to the healthy development and 
maintenance of all creatures. It stimulates and strengthens the 
organs, and this tends to keep the animals vigorous and to prevent 
disease. Stables should have yards adjoining, which are protected 
from the cold winds of winter and the hot sun of summer, where the 
live-stock can be exercised. Ordinarily, the larger the field in 
which stock may take exercise, the better. 




^^\7l 



Fig. 120. — A yard adjoining the barn where the cattle may exercise. A Nebraska 

stock farm. 



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Fig. 121. — Clean milk cannot be produced here. 



(p 239) 



240 



AGRICULTURE 



Animals that are being fattened for market slioukl have only 
sufficient exercise to keep the body in good condition. Exercise 
requires energy and in fattening animals all the energy possible 
must be saved for storing as reserve fat. 




Fig, 122. — Clean milk is likely to be produeed here. 



Cleanliness. — Animals require clean food, clean water, and 
clean quarters, and must themselves be kept clean. Filthy con- 
ditions breed disease, and diseased animals are a loss to the farmer. 
We commonly think of pigs as very uncleanly animals ; but if 
they have opportunity to choose their own beds, they will keep 
cleaner than they usually are in the pens. Pigs thrive in ^pite 
of their filthy surroundings, not because of such surroundings. 
Nearly all animals are naturally cleanl}^ 



THE NEEDS OF FARM ANIMALS 241 

Problem 180. When a horse works hard on a warm day, and ''steams" 
and sweats, what is he wasting from the body ? How can this waste be 
replaced ? 

Problem 181. When the cow stable is closed in winter, it becomes warm 
and damp. Why ? 

Problem 182. Can you make a fire burn in an air-tight can ? Why 
not? 

Problem 183. Why does a stout person feel the heat more than a slender 
person ? 

Problem 184- If there are animals on your father's farm that are being 
fattened for market, do they receive different food and care from the 
others? In what respects? 

Problem 185. Name all the different kinds of farm animals in your 
neighborhood. Tell the purpose for which each is kept. 

Problem 186. What care should a working horse receive ? 

Problem 187. Should animals be given ice-cold water ? Why ? 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

THE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

In the preceeding chapter we learned that animals require 
food both to maintain their bodies in good condition and to 
repair the tissues that are broken down by work. There must 
also be food for growth and reproduction. The satisfying of 
these needs of animals is spoken of as nutrition. 

We have learned, also, that the food requirements are me^M^y- 
giving animals water and foods containing mineral matter (some- 
times called ash), nitrogenous matter (or proteids), fats, and car- 
bohydrates. But this is not all. If an animal is to be properly 
nourished, the foods must be given in certain definite quantities 
or proportions. This is where skill in feeding and knowledge of 
the value of various feeding-stuffs is required. 

Foods are not all alike. — Feeding-stuffs of many different kinds 
are given to farm animals. Hays, grains, fodders, and roots are 
very unlike one another. The farmer who desires to feed his live- 
stock intelligently must know what these differences are and what 
effect they have on the animal. 

The chemist who has studied the various foods in his laboratory 
carefully, and has analyzed them, (has taken them apart), tells us 
that all the ordinary feeds contain water, protein, carbohydrates, 
fats, and mineral matter, but that most of them contain more 
of one of these groups than of the others. This is what we should 
expect, since we know that plants require all of these compounds 
for their growth. But we do not find the proteids and the carbo- 
hydrates in separate packages, so to speak, ready to be mixed 
as needed. They are combined in all feeding-stuffs and in very dif- 

242 



THE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



243 



ferent proportions. The chemist discovers what these proportions 
are. Without knowing this fact, we should not be able to prepare 
satisfactory combinations of food for animals. With this 
knowledge, we can learn how to put together the various 
feeds to give the proportions of each element that are desired. 
Such a combination of food is called a ration. 



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l^p^ 


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ti^Bfc 


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Fig. 123. — The labor of feeding may be lessened by the use of a car, or conveyer 

for the feed. 



Choice of foods. — The choice of foods will vary for different 
classes of animals and the work they have to do. A horse at work 
requires different kinds and quantities of food from one at pasture. 
A cow does "not require the same kind of food to produce milk that 
a hog does to produce pork. Neither does a cow giving milk 
require the same food as a steer that is being fattened for market. 

If we wish to fatten stock for market, we feed fat-producing 



244 



AGRICULTURE 



foods, — those richer in carbohydrates than in other substances. 
If we are feeding for work, we give those foods that are rich in 
muscle-forming materials, the proteids. If feeding for wool, or 
milk, or eggs, we prepare a ration that contains the proper balance 
between proteids and carbohydrates to produce the products 
desired. 




Fig. 124. — Another \'iew in the stable shown in Fig. 123. Cattle may be kept clean. 



Balanced rations. — Perhaps some of 3'ou have heard your 
father speak of ''balanced rations " for his stock. You may know 
what he means. This is an expression which every farm boy and 
girl should understand. We may now describe what a balanced 
ration is. 



THE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



245 



When an animal is working hard, there is a heavy tax on the 
muscles and tendons of the body. When it is at rest in the stall, 
there is no severe strain on the muscles. If the heavy ration that 
is given to the working animal is given to the idle animal, the 
latter will not be able to digest and utilize it, and will become sick. 




Fig. 125. — Salting the young stock. 



The idle animal should be fed a lighter ration. Both rations will 
contain proteids and carbohydrates, but in different proportions. 
When the proteids and carbohydrates are combined in such 
proportions as experience has shown will produce the best results, 
we have what we call a balanced ration. The food elements are 
balanced, sometimes with a larger proportion of one, sometimes 



246 AGRICULTURE 

of the other, to satisfy the needs of a particular animal. There is 
a proper balance for the ration for each animal, which is determined 
largely by what the animal does. A balanced ration for a horse 
may not be balanced for a sheep. A ration that is balanced for a 
cow giving milk would not be balanced if she were being fattened 
for market. 

Experts who have studied the matter carefully have deter- 
mined approximately how rations should be balanced for all ordi- 
nary farm purposes. 

Nutritive ratio. — Perhaps some of you have also heard your 
father speak of the " nutritive ratio " of the feed he is giving his 
stock. We should learn the meaning of this expression, for it has 
to do with the most important considerations in the feeding of 
stock. We do i ot know whether we are feeding a balanced- 
ration until we know the nutritive ratio. 

Let us recall again that the substances or elements in stock-foods 
that especially concern the farmer, are the proteids and the car- 
bohydrates ; and that these two groups of food-elements are used 
for quite different purposes in the animal body. As they both 
exist in all food-stuffs in greater or less proportions, the first step 
in preparing a ration for stock is to determine the proper balance 
between them for the desired purpose. 

These food-elements are ''nutrients"; that is, they contain 
nutriment or nourishment. The nutritive ratio, then, is simply 
the ratio, or proportion, in which these nutrients (proteids and 
carbohydrates), are combined in the food. For example, if corn 
meal is 8 per cent protein and 76 per cent carbohydrates (including 
fats), these two groups of elements are combined in the propor- 
tion cf 8 to 76, or, when reduced to its lowest terms, 1 to 9.5. 
The nutritive ratio, or ratio of the nutrients, of cornmeal is then 
1 to 9.5 (usually written 1 : 9.5) ; that is, cornmeal contains 1 part, 
or per cent, of protein, to every 9.5 parts of carbohydrates. 

Each food has a nutritive ratio of its own. When two or more 
foods are combined in the ration, which is usually the case, the 



THE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



247 



complete ration will have a nutritive ratio of its own. This ratio 
will be different from that of any one of its ingredients. It will 
be essentially the average of the nutritive ratios of all the foods 
that compose the ration. In order to get the exact ratio, how- 
ever, the total composition of all the foods concerned must be 
considered. 

The kinds or classes of foods. — Every boy who has helped 
his father feed the stock knows that there are many different kinds 




Fig. 126. — Salting the sheep. 

of foods. Some of them closely resemble others in certain char- 
acteristics, so that it is possible to consider them together in 
groups or classes. Practical^ all feeding-stuffs may be placed in 
one of three general classes. These are (1) coarse fodders, or 
roughage, (2) root crops, (3) grains and meals. Those of the last 
group are commonly called '' concentrated foods " or " concen- 



248 



AGRICULTURE 



trates/' because they contain a large amount of nutriment in a 
small weight and bulk. 

Coarse fodders. — The coarse fodders may contain much carbo- 
hydrate, but usually have relatively little protein. They are 
rough and bulky, and are generally fed to « stock in larger quan- 
tities than other kinds of feed because they carry considerable 
material that is of little or no value to the animal. The common 




Fig. 127. — Duroc-Jersey hogs at pasture. 



coarse fodders are timothy, clover, alfalfa, cowpea hay, and all 
other kinds of hay, straw, and corn-stalks. 

Corn silage is a much used coarse feed. The corn is cut and 
stored in the silo while it is still green, so that it is juicy and re- 
freshing when fed to the cattle. 

Roots and tubers. — Roots and tubers contain a very large 
proportion of water, sometimes as much as 80 to 95 per cent. 
Because of this watery or juicy condition, they are said to be suc- 
culent. 



THE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 249 

The more common root crops given to stock are beets, mangels, 
and carrots. Cabbages, kale, and pumpkins serve much the 
same purposes as root crops when fed to stock, as they also are 
watery. 

Concentrated foods. — Concentrated foods contain very little 
water or indigestible matter. They are of two general kinds: 

(1) The grains, as, corn, oats, rye, barley, wheat, peas, and 
beans. These contain a medium amount of proteids and a rather 
large percentage of carbohydrates. Corn contains a very high 
percentage of carbohydrate. That is why it is such a good food 
in cold weather and for fattening animals. 

(2) The by-product feeding-stuffs, or those which are left in 
the manufacture of starch, breakfast foods, flour, sugar, alcohohc 
liquors, and oils. The common names of some of these by-products 
are bran, middlings, shorts, rice bran, grits, gluten, cottonseed 
meal, oil meal, brewer's or distiller's grains, malt sprouts, and beet 
pulp. For the most part they are very nutritious and easily di- 
gested foods. They should constitute some portion of the 
ration given to all farm animals. 

Problem 188. Name the foods that are commonly fed to horses in your 
locality ; to cattle ; to sheep ; to hogs ; to poultry. Tell which are coarse 
fodders, which roots or succulent feeds, which concentrates. 

Problem 189. How many of these different feeds are raised on the 
farms in the locality ? How many are shipped in from distant places ? 
Find out how much the different feeds cost in your neighborhood. 

Problem 190. How are these different feeds stored ? 

Problem. 191. If a balanced ration is fed to any of the animals on your 
father's farm, tell what feeds it includes and why it is balanced; also, 
what is it fed to accomplish. Ask your father which of the feeds he uses 
are most fattening. 

Problem 192. Why should not the same ration be given to an ox at 
rest in the stall, as to one that works hard every day ? 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

HORSES 

Our ancestors made little progress in the tillage of the 
soil until beasts of burden were domesticated to do the heavy 
work. The use of the slow-moving ox was a great advance over 
hand work. When the horse, which long had enjoyed special 
distinction as the animal of emperors and persons of noble 
birth, and of war, was pressed into the common work of the world, 
rapid progress became possible. The horse had power, speed, and 
endurance. He worked faster and to better advantage than the 
ox. The latter gradually had to give place to him. 

History. — The history of the horse, through many forms and 
extending over thousands of years, is one of absorbing interest. 
Although the modern form of the horse did not exist on the Ameri- 
can continent in prehistoric times, yet fossil remains of his very 
ancient ancestors have been discovered in those parts of the con- 
tinent which are how included in the states of New Jersey, Ne- 
braska, South Dakota, and Wyoming. 

It was many thousands of years ago that Eohippus, the name 
by which the earliest prehistoric horse was called, lived in the 
Rock}^ ]\Iountain range and southward to Mexico. He inhabited 
also parts of Europe and Great Britain, and could pass between the 
continents on dry land. This earl}^ horse was no larger than a dog. 
He possessed four toes on each front foot, with the splint of a 
fifth, and three on each hind foot, with the splint of a fourth. In his 
day the earth was warm and damp, and the toes added greatly 
to his ability to move about in the mud. 

250 



HORSES 



251 



In time, Eohippus was succeeded by a higher form called Oro- 
hippus. This was also a small animal, about fourteen inches high. 
The splints of the extra toes had disappeared from the feet. This 
form in turn gave way later to Mesohippus, which somewhat re- 
sembled the modern horse. He was about eighteen inches high. 
In this type the toes had been reduced to three on each foot. The 
center toe was more prominent than the others and bore most of 
the weight. 

Down through the ages the horse continued, gradually becom- 
ing larger and losing the use of his toes. The last stage is the 
modern horse, with its 
graceful limbs that termi- 
nate in a dense hoof 
covering the single middle 
toe. The remaining toes 
have disappeared, but 
traces of the two toes are 
to be found in the sphnts 
on both fore and hind 
legs. The present horse 
is much larger than any 
of his prehistoric ancestors. 

The gradual develop- 
ment of the giant draft 
horse of to-day from the small dog-like animal no larger than the 
fox terrier is a most interesting demonstration of the changes 
wrought by nature to adapt animals to the conditions under 
which they Hve. 

There are three types of horse-like animals in the present day, 
which mark stages in the development : first, the horse proper, 
as we know him on the farm ; second, the wild ass ; third, the 
zebra and quagga, which somewhat resemble the ass but are 
beautifully striped. There are still wild horses in herds on the 
plains of Tartary, and occasional herds of wild mustangs on the 




Fig. 128. — The quagga. 



252 AGRICULTURE 

great plains of our own country. The present wild horses of this 
country, however, are descendents of horses introduced here by 
Europeans. 

The horse was first hunted by man for his flesh for food. Later 
he was driven, then ridden, and lastly employed as a beast of 
burden. 

Types of domestic horses. — After man had domesticated the 
horse, he proceeded to develop from him a great variety of races, 
or breeds, that would be useful to him under particular conditions. 
B}^ comparing the horses we see on the road, we shall observe that 
they are of different forms or types. Some possess a form that 
enables them to draw very heavy loads, but at a slow pace. Some 
are so formed as to draw light loads and at a very rapid pace. Be- 
tween these two extremes we may observe a form that is suited^ 
to draw a moderate load, but with high action and much style. 
These are three distinct types, or forms, and they are called draft 
horses, driving horses, and coach horses. 

The draft horse is the largest and heaviest representative of the 
horse tribe. He is massive, powerful, low-down, blocky, and 
compact. He has been developed for weight so as to be able to 
move great loads. In average condition he may weigh from 1500 to 
2000 pounds. 

There are several breeds^ of draft horses, a few of which are 



1 The word breed is a term applied to a group of animals that rather closely re- 
semble one another, and usually take their name from the region in which they 
originated. A variety is a smaller group within a breed, which Includes the animals 
that still more closely resemble one another. There may be several varieties in one 
breed. The word type is a larger or more general term than breed, and is applied to 
larger groups composed of breeds and races that have a number of characteristics in 
common. Thus, we have the draft type of horses, which includes such breeds as the 
Percheron, Clydesdale, Belgian, etc. We have the meat type of chickens, including 
the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, and other breeds. There are single-comb and 
rose-comb varieties in the Wyandotte breed, and Barred and White varieties in the 
Plymouth Rock breed. If we were to represent the divisions by a tree, we should 
have, first, the trunk, or type, which breaks into smaller branches or breeds ; the 
branches dix-ide into smaller branches and twigs, which may represent the varieties. 



HORSES 



253 



popular in America. The Percheron breed came from France. It 
is either gray or black in color. The Belgian, usually of a bay 
color, came from Belgium. The Shire, which may vary through 
bay, brown, and sorrel in color, was imported from England. The 
Clydesdale, from Scotland, resembles the Shire, but may be smaller 




Fig. 129. — ^ Percheron. Draft hori 



and more active. The Suffolk Punch, from Suffolk County in the 
eastern part of England, is uniformly of a chestnut color. 

The coach horse is the next largest type. He was originalUy 
developed for pulling heavy coaches at a good speed. He is mod- 
erately heavy, smooth and symmetrical in form, and of graceful 



254 



AGRICULTURE 



carriage. The Hackney, French coach, and German coach are 
the principal breeds. 

The hackney came from England, where for centuries he has 
been a favorite saddler and roadster. His most popular color is 
chestnut. The French coach, as its name implies, was developed 







Fig. 130. — Suffolk Punch. Draft horse. 



in France and imported to America. Bay and brown are the 
most common colors in this breed. The German coach, bred for 
centuries in Germany, is usually bay, black, or brown in color. 

The American trotter, pacer, or roadster, a distinctly American 
breed, is the common type of driving horse. It has a rather long, 
graceful neck, long body, narrow chest, and long legs. The 
conformation, or general shape, is angular, muscles prominent, 



HORSES 



255 



and ribs more or less noticeable. Speed and endurance are im- 
portant qualities. The colors vary greatly, bay, black, brown, 
and roan being com- 
mon. 

The American sad- 
dle horse, also called 
the Kentucky saddle 
horse, is the most 
beautiful modern 
breed. He has been 
developed in America, 
as his name suggests. 




Fig. 131. — Coach horses. 




J^ 



Fig. 132. — Hackney. Coach horse. 



256 



AGRICULTURE 



He has graceful form, erect carriage, smooth action, and is pos- 
sessed of much courage and spirit. He may be trained to go 
several gaits, as the rack, or single-foot, running walk, straight 
walk, trot, and canter. 




Fig. 133. — Arabian horse, Shahwan. Bred in Egypt, and owned in England and 
then in America. Saddle and driving horse. 



The Thoroughbred, or EngUsh running horse, is a small, nervous, 
muscular animal. He is possessed of much endurance at the 
running gait. He has been bred for sport and racing. His color 
may be bay, brown, or chestnut. 

Horse training. — The pleasure and profit to be derived from 
the use of a horse will depend on how well he is trained to obey the 
wishes and orders of his master. The horse has a rather remark- 



HORSES 



257 



able memory. If he succeeds in breaking his halter once, he will 

try to do it many times thereafter. If the first time he is tied 

he tries to break his halter and fails, he is not Hkely to try again. 
The trainer should be firm and quiet in his handhng of a horse, 

and should always accompHsh what he undertakes. The horse 

must learn from the 

first that the master's 

will is to be obeyed. 
At the outset the 

horse should be trained 

to stand still while 

being harnessed and 

hitched. The harness 

should be put on from 

the left side and gently 

but firmly placed in 
position. 

In driving, only a 
few signals should be 
used. These should 
mean exactly the same 
thing at all times. 
Signals or commands 
should always be 
obeyed. Whoa should mean to stop, and nothing else. It should 
not mean to go slowly or steadily, or even to get ready to stop. 
Steady should be used when it is desired to have the horse go 
slowly or steadily. Back should mean to move back wards, and 
it should not mean to stop. Get up should mean to move for- 
ward when the animal has been hitched. These commands 
should always be spoken clearly so as to be understood by the 
horse. 

Harness. — The work of the horse is accomphshed by means of 
harness. Properly fitted harness adds to the usefulness, of the 




Fig. 134. 



■ A bucking broncho, an unbroken horse 
of the southwest. 



258 



AGRICULTURE 



horse as well as to his comfort. A well-kept harness adds to the 
appearance when the horse is hitched. 

Harness is used to enable the driver to control the horse, and to 
enable the horse to control the load — to move it forward and 
backward. To control the horse, the driver must gain command 




Fig, 135. — Parts of a harness : 1, bridle, having the following pieces: a, bit; 6, nose 
band ; c, chin band ; d, face band ; e, blinds ; /, winker braces ; g, brow band ; 
h, crown band ; i, gag swivel ; j, side check ; k, throat latch ; 2, lines ; 3, collar ; 
4, hames ; 5, hame tugs ; 6, traces ; 7, martingale ; 8, saddle ; 9, girth ; 10 shaft 
tug; 11, back strap; 12, crupper; 13, hip strap; 14, breeching; 15, holdback 
strap. 



of the head. This is accomplished through the bridle, and by 
placing in the mouth a bit to which the lines are attached. 

The horse can best control the load from his shoulders. For 
this purpose the harness is provided with collar, hames, and traces. 
The breeching and hold-back enable him to back the load. 

There are four places in which the harness rubs the body con- 



HORSES 259 

stantly. Unless it is carefully adjusted, these places may become 
sore. A poorly fitting bridle or a severe bit may cause sore mouth; 
a poorly fitting collar may cause sore shoulders ; a poorly fitting 
saddle or back-pad may result in a sore back ; a poorly fitting 
crupper may develop a sore tail. Sores give horses much pain. A 
sore mouth may provoke a horse to run away. Sore shoulders 
and sore back may provoke balking. Sore tail frequently provokes 
kicking. 

Feeding. — Horses relish good timothy hay, or hay mixed with 
clover. Corn and oats are the best liked concentrates. Oats are 
better for driving horses, and corn for work horses. As we learned 
in the preceeding chapter, the kinds of rations must be adapted 
to the work the animal has to do ; one kind for a draft horse, 
another for a coach horse, others for driving and race horses. 

The food should be provided regularly. Water should be given 
before feeding, but not while the animal is overheated. In 
winter it should have the chill taken off. 

Grooming. — Nothing adds more to the appearance of a horse 
than grooming. Since the coat shows so readily the effects of groom- 
ing, the body generally receives more attention than the legs. 
Usually the legs are most in need of grooming. Time spent in 
cleaning and rubbing the horse in the evening, after the day's 
work is done, is worth much more than the same length of time 
spent in the morning, because the horse will rest so much better. 

Animals properly groomed, fed, and blanketed in the evening 
come from the stable in the morning with spirit and vigor. They 
also are much less likely to develop any of the diseases and diffi- 
culties to which the feet and legs of horses are subject. 

Problem 193. Make a list of all the different kinds of labor performed 
on your father's farm by the horse. 

Problem 194- Could many of these tasks have been done without the 
aid of horses ? Would it have been more expensive to perform them by 
other means ? 

Problem 195. A horse well directed can do as much work as ten men. 



260 AGRICULTURE 

Does he earn good board, kind treatment, a comfortable place in which to 
rest, and careful grooming? 

Problem 196. Can you name the parts of the harness and tell what each 
does? 

Problem 197. How many breeds of horses are represented in your 
locality? How do you tell them apart? Are most of the horses 
common, mixed stock? 

Problem 198. Name the parts of a horse. (Perhaps yonr father will 
drive a horse to the school-house and explain the parts to all the pupils.) 

Problem 199. How would you care for a harness ? 



r CHAPTER XXXV 

CATTLE 

Cattle are the most important domestic animals of the English- 
speaking peoples. They are much more necessary than horses. 
They may be used as beasts of labor, and they supply meat, hides, 
and milk. From the milk are made butter and cheese and other 
products of lesser importance. 

History. — Our domestic cattle probably have descended from at 
least three prehistoric races. These races were entirel}^ distinct 
from one another. One, called the Urus, was domesticated by the 
Swiss lake-dwellers. It existed in large numbers in the forests of 
Eurofje down to the time when history began to be recorded. It is 
described as being a little smaller than an elephant, but resembling 
a bull in form. 

A second prehistoric ancestor was the Celtic ox, which once ran 
wild in Sweden. It also was bred by the ancient lake-dwellers. 
It was smaller than our present-day cattle. 

The third of the original ancestors was an animal larger than the 
Celtic ox, that lived with the ox in the forests of Scandinavia. The 
mountain cattle that are now found in Norway are supposed to 
have descended from it. 

Two races to-day. — Cattle, as they exist among civiHzed peoples 
to-day, are of two races. One is the common beef and dairy cattle, 
which nearly every farm boy and girl in America knows. The 
other, called zebus, is a race of peculiar looking cattle that are 
common in India. They have an immense hump of fat over the 
shoulders, large, drooping ears, and a heavy, loose dewlap hanging 

261 



262 AGRICULTURE 

from the underside of the neck and extending from the lower Up 
back to the chest. 

The humped zebus were domesticated in Egypt 2000 years be- 
fore the Christian era. In India they are now used as beasts of 
burden and also as saddle animals. They have an easy trot, or 
gallop, and great endurance, being able to cover sixty or seventy 
miles in a day. Occasionally a pure white animal is found. It 
then becomes the sacred bull of India and plays an important 
part in reUgious festivals. Zebus are sometimes called sacred 
cattle. They enjoy a hot, dry climate. A few have been intro- 
duced into the southwestern part of the United States. 

Beef and dairy cattle. — Cattle are reared in America for two 
purposes : for the production of milk, and for the production 
of beef. As these two purposes make different demands on 
the energies of the animal, they cannot both be developed to their 
highest condition in one animal. For this reason, there have 
gradually grown up two distinct types of animals, one which ex- 
cels in milk production, and another which excels in meat pro- 
duction. We call the one dairy animals and the other beef 
animals. 

But these two types are not wholly distinct, or separate from 
one another. The cows of the beef type give some milk, and the 
animals of the dairy type will furnish beef of fairly good quaUty 
when fattened. There are a great many animals of inter- 
mediate form, that produce beef of fair quahty and at the 
same time are used for milk production. They are spoken of as 
dual-purpose (two-purpose) or general-purpose animals. 

Beef type. — Animals of the beef type are reared for meat. 
The more meat they can furnish for a given quantity of 
food, the more profitable they will be. They have been de- 
veloped with broad, deep, compact, rectangular bodies which 
are covered thickly and smoothly with flesh (muscle), so that 
the angles of the bones are nowhere prominent. The neck is 
short and heavy, and blends smoothly into the shoulders. The 



CATTLE 263 

legs are short and set wide apart so as to support a large, heavy 
body. 

Not all beef animals are aHke, however. They have been de- 
veloped from different ancestors and under different geographical 
conditions. There are now several types, called breeds, among beef 



Fig. 136. — Aberdeen-Angus bull. Beef type, 

animals. The most common breeds in America are Shorthorn, 
Aberdeen-Angus, Hereford, and Galloway. All of these breeds 
originated in Great Britain, and have been imported into America. 
The Shorthorn is perhaps the most popular beef breed. It 
originated in the valley of the Tees River, in the northeastern 
part of England. It has short, heavy horns, that curve gracefully 
forward (see^ frontispiece) . In color it varies more than any other 
breed. It may be white, or red, a mixture of red and white, or 
roan. The Shorthorn was first imported into the United States in 



264 



AGRICULTURE 



1783, and into Canada in 1833. It is now the most widely dis- 
tributed beef breed in America. 

The Aberdeen-Angus had its origin the northeastern part of 
Scotland. Its color is black and it has no horns. It was brought 

to America in 1872. 
It is now reared in 
large numbers in 
both the United 
States and Canada. 

The Galloway is a 
very ancient breed, 
which originated 
from the wild cattle 
that the Romans- 
found in the forests 
of Britain when they 
first visited that 
country. It takes 
its name from the 
province of Galloway 
in the southeastern 
part of Scotland. It 
has a long, soft, 
shaggy coat of black 
hair, and is hornless. 
The shaggy coat 
easily distinguishes 
it from the Aberdeen-Angus. The breed first reached Ontario, 
Canada, in 1853, and later came to the United States. 

The Hereford originated in the southwestern part of England, 
in the county of Hereford. The breed is distinguished by its color 
markings. The head, including jaws and throat, is white, with 
white under the neck, down the breast, under the body, and more 
or less on the legs. The bush of the tail also is white. There is a 




Fig. 137. 



Young Galloway cow. Beef type. 



CATTLE 265 

white strip on the top of the neck from about the middle to the 
top of the shoulders. The remainder of the body is red. The 
coat of hair is long, soft, and curly. 

The Hereford first reached America in 1817. It is now one 
of the leading beef breeds in Canada, the United States, and 
Mexico. 

Dairy type. - Animals of the dairy type are reared for milk. 
The less flesh they carry the better, as it is desired that all the 
surplus food-energy shall go for the production of milk and not 
for the production of meat. The body of a good dairy animal is 
narrower before than behind ; that is, it appears wedge-shaped as 
we view the animal from the side, with the smaller end of the 
wedge toward the front. This is caused by a large development 
of the rear quarters, and by rather low, thin shoulders. The 
animal has a spare, angular appearance because of the lack of 
muscular development. The angles and joints of the bones are 
prominent. This does not mean that the animal is poor, for there 
may still be abundant fat stored in the body. 

There are several distinct breeds of dairy cattle for the same 
reason that there are separate beef breeds. The more common 
breeds in America are Jersey, Guernsey, Holstein-Friesian, and 
Ayrshire. Dutch Belted and French Canadian cattle are found in 
smaller numbers. 

Jersey cattle originated on the island of Jersey in the English 
Channel. They are rather small, quiet animals, but not lacking 
in spirit. The horns are small and crumpled, or incurving. The 
body is well-rounded, large, and deep. The color is soft gray 
brown, or fawn. The breed was first imported into America in 
1850. It has increased so rapidly in this country that there are 
now more in America than on the island of Jersey. 

Guernsey cattle originated on the island of Gurnsey, near the 
island of Jersey, in the English Channel. They are slightly larger 
than Jerseys. Their color is a shade of fawn with white markings. 
It is supposed that they were first brought to America in 1818. 



266 



AGRICULTURE 



They are most numerous in this country in the northern part of 
the United States and Canada. 

Holstein-Friesian cattle had their origin among the ancient 
Friesland people, a tribe which, at the time of our earliest historical 
knowledge of it, occupied the shores of the North Sea. The 
Friesians were the oldest inhabitants of Holland. Holstein- 
Friesian cattle are the largest of the dairy breeds, and are black 




Fig. 138. — Holstein-Friesian cow. Dairy type. 

and white in color. It is probable that a few animals were brought 
to America by the early Dutch settlers. There were few of them 
in this country earher than fifty years ago. The breed is now 
scattered throughout the United States and Canada. 

Ayrshire cattle were developed in the county of Ayr, in Scotland. 
They are of medium size, and somewhat less angular than Jersey 
or Holstein cattle. The common color in America is red and 
white patches, with rather more white than red. They first 
reached America between 1820 and 1830. Ayrshires have been 
especially popular in Canada. 

Feeding and care of cattle. — We have learned that it is a 
severe tax on a dairy cow to produce milk. The more milk she 



i 



CATTLE 



267 



yields to the pound of food the more valuable she is to her owner, 
and the heavier the tax on her system. She is expected to be 
read}^ twice a day with a good yield of milk. In order to ,do so, 
she must have kind treatment, regular milking, and watering and 
feeding, and plenty of nourishing food. 




Fig. 139. — Ayrshire cow. Dairy type. 



In the summer, when dairy cattle are at pasture, they need little 
else except when the pasture becomes short and dry. Then corn, 
alfalfa, peas, oats, rye, rape, and a few other crops may be cut 
while green and fed to them. In the winter, they relish well-made 
timothy, clover, alfalfa, or other kinds of hay, corn fodder, silage, 
root crops, and concentrates or grain feeds. If possible the ration 
should contain some hay and other dry forage, a succulent food, 
as silage or roots, and some grain. The careful farmer will feed a 
properly balanced ration. 



268 



AGRICULTURE 



Beef cattle are given such foods as will make them fat most 
quickly and at least expense. Sometimes they are fed fattening 
foods as soon after birth as they are able to digest them, and are 
kept on fattening foods until they are ready for market. They 
may then be made ready for market when ten to sixteen months 
old. Other cattle are allowed the freedom of the range or pasture 




Fig. 140. — Dutch Belted bull. Dairy type. 



for a few months or a year or two, and are given fattening foods 
for a period just before they are to be marketed. Corn is the 
chief fattening food, with the addition sometimes of oats, oil meal, 
gluten meal, or other concentrates. Corn fodder, silage, clover, 
alfalfa, cowpeas, and other kinds of forage are also fed. 

In the central and middle western states, the feeding of cattle 
for market has been developed on a very extensive scale. Formerly 
they were allowed to feed in great droves over the broad unfenced 
country, being attended by cowboys; but now that the Great 



CATTLE 269 

West is becoming settled and fenced, the cattle are more confined 
to regular farms, and the days of ^'ranging" are passing away. 

Problem 200. Do the farmer's in your locality raise dairy or beef 
cattle ? If most of them raise dairy cattle, are there any small herds of 
beef or dual-purpose cattle ? 

Problem 201. What kinds of products are received from the cattle 
raised in your locality ? Are the products used in the locality or shipped 
away? If shipped, how are they prepared for shipping? 

Problem 202. If there is a creamery, find out how much milk and 
butter is handled each day, and what becomes of the butter. Find out 
how the farmers are paid — on what basis. If there is a skimming sta- 
tion, secure similar information from it. 

Problem 203. Of what value are cattle to the farmer and his farm 
aside from the dairy or beef products he gets from them ? 

Problem 204- Ask the teacher to take the class to the best stock-farm 
in the neighborhood, and have the owner show the class the points of a 
good cow. Ask him about the ration he feeds. 

Problem 205. Name the different breeds of cattle represented on the 
farms in the locality. Describe how one breed differs from another. 

Problem 206. Make an estimate of the number of cattle in your 
school district ; and estimate how many are giving milk, how many are 
fattening for beef, and how many are young stock ? 



CHAPTER XXXVi 



SHEEP 



Our earliest records tell of shepherds keeping watch over 
their flocks of sheep. The first animals mentioned in the Bible 
are sheep. Abraham's wealth was measured by his '^ sheep and 

oxen and camels." This 
useful little animal has 
known a long period of 
domestication. It has 
furnished food and 
clothing for many races 
of men. Special dis- 
tinction has attached to 
it because of its ancient 
use for sacrificial pur- 
poses in religious wor- 
ship. 

History. — On the 
elevated plains of Asia, 
from the Caucasus 
northward and east- 
ward to Kamchatka 
and the ocean, roam 
many small flocks of 
wild sheep, or argali as 
they are called. They are larger than our common sheep, with 
enormous horns sometimes a foot in circumference at the base 
and three to four feet long. The wool is brown, with a buff- 
colored streak along the back and a large spot of buff color on the 

270 




Fig. 141. 



The musmon, one of the wild ancestors 
of our domestic sheep. 



SHEEP 271 

liaunch. These animals are agile and strong, but wary and sus- 
picious. They are hunted for their flesh and their skins, which are 
made into clothing. 

In the mountains of Greece, and on the islands of Crete, Cyprus, 
Corsica, and Sardinia, are fo\md other large herds of animals much 
smaller than the argali, and also less powerful and less active. 
They also are wild sheep, and are called by the name niusmon or 
mouflon. 

It is thought that domestic sheep are descended from these two 
wild forms. Like the argali and the musmon, domestic sheep are 
mountain and highland animals, or they do best in cool climates. 
They are able to thrive on steep rocky hillsides, mountain-sides, 
and other rough lands inaccessible to the plow. 

The wild sheep of America have not had part in the formation 
of our domestic breeds. 

There are many types of sheep. — As is to be expected of an 
animal that has been long under domestication in many countries, 
the sheep presents many types or forms. Some have two horns, 
others three, others four or more, and others none. Some have 
short tails, others have long tails, and one breed in Asia has a very 
thick, fat tail. There are large races and dwarf races. Some 
kinds have a heavy double coat, and in tropical regions there are 
woolless sheep. 

The great variety in domestic sheep illustrates how animals in 
nature adapt themselves to the conditions in which they live. The 
adaptability of the sheep has found for it a place in nearly every 
part of the world. 

Sheep may be classified according to use. — Sheep are raised 
for wool and for meat. Some types that yielded finer fleece 
than others have been developed for their wool, so that we now 
have special wool breeds. Others, which furnished a fine quality 
of mutton, were bred principally for this character and so we have 
also mutton breeds. 

Practically all of our domestic sheep belong in either one of 



272 



AGRICULTURE 



these two groups. But these two classes are not distinct. Wool 
is sheared from the mutton breeds and mutton is the final disposi- 
tion of most of the wool breeds. 

Since all domestic sheep in America yield some wool, it is more 
common to classify them according to length or quality of fleece. 
Three classes are given : fine wool, medium wool, and long wool. 
The fine-wool sheep are the best wool breeds, and the other two 
classes are the mutton breeds. 

The breeds of sheep. — In America we have the following breeds 
of sheep : 

(1) Fine-wool breeds : American Merino, Delaine Merino, and 
Rambouillet or French Merino. 




Fig. 142. — American Merino ram. 



SHEEP 



273 



^- 




Fig. 144. — Oxford Down ram. 



274 AGRICULTURE 

(2) Medium-wool breeds : Dorset Horn, Hampshire Down, 
Oxford Down, Shropshire Down, Southdown, Suffolk Down, and 
Tunis. 

(3) Long-wool breeds : Cheviot, Cotswold, Leicester, and 
Lincoln. 

Wool production. — Next to cotton, wool is the product most ex- 
tensively used in the manufacture of cloth, felt, and other fabrics. 
It is estimated that in 1900 the world's wool cHp was 2,685,000,000 



V ^'~if 




Fig. 145. — Cheviot ewes. 

pounds. Argentina, Austraha, America, Russia, Great Britain, 
and British India are the leading wool-producing countries. 

For many years sheep-breeders in America paid much attention 
to the production of fine wool. In 1893, the price of wool became 
very low, and many breeders, especially in the middle and eastern 
states, abandoned wool production and undertook to produce 
mutton. On the ranches of the west and the southwest, wool- 
growing is now receiving much attention again. The wild pastures 
that are too scant for cattle are yet valuable for sheep-raising. 
The ranchman can place wool on the market at much less expense 



SHEEP 



275 



than he can raise mutton. Many breeders ship lambs east for 
fattening for market. 

Mutton production. — The rearing and feeding of sheep for the 
production of mutton is to-day an important industry in America. 
In 1907, there were 3,069,391 sheep slaughtered at the Union Stock 



^r*/ 
*•<«*/ 







Fig. 146. — Lincoln ram. 



Yards in Chicago alone. Large numbers were slaughtered at many 
other points. 

Sometimes lambs are " forced," or fattene'd from their birth 
until they are six to ten weeks old. They are commonly called 
'' hot-house " lambs. They furnish the finest quality of mutton 
and bring high prices. They require special buildings and much 
care in their rearing. 

More commonly sheep are allowed to run on pasture during the 



276 AGRICULTURE 

summer, and are given a small amount of grain. They are slaugh- 
tered in the fall before it is time to house them for the winter. 

Another method of producing mutton is to fatten western lambs 
that have been allowed to run on the free range until eight or 
twenty months old. They are then shipped to eastern farms. 
Here they are fed corn, clover, or mixed hay. Sometimes oats, 
peas, and barley are given. This method is increasing in im- 
portance and extent. The Avestern man makes his money on the 

# -■--,:■'■ ... ■ ,> 




Fig. 147, — Shropshire lamb ewes. 

raising of the sheep and on the use of his pasture ; the eastern 
man makes his profit on the feed that he raises or buys. 

Sheep-farming in America. — In the East sheep are kept in 
small flocks within fenced fields, and in winter are housed in regular 
barns. In the West great sheep ranches have been developed. 
Sheep-farming as an industry is now largely a business of the 
West. Formerly the sheep were pastured on the open unfenced 
range (or pubUc domain) ; but now they are mostly confined to 
large privatety-owned ranches, at least during some part of the 
year. 

In the mountain states of the West the sheep are pastured 
on the highlands in summer, often above the timber-land and 
near the snow-hne, and on the plains or in the valleys in winter. 
Immense flocks or " bands " are kept, which are moved from 



SHEEP 277 

place to place to secure pasturage. Men with camp equipments 
and sheep dogs move with the flocks. The sheep are sheared just 
before they go to the summer range. 

Problem 207. Write or explain how the sheep, if any, are raised in your 
locality: on what lands they are pastured, when they are housed, what 
they are fed, what becomes of the wool and the mutton. 

Problem 208. Name and describe any breeds of sheep with which you 
are familiar. 

Problem 209. Do sheep require much attention ? In what ways are 
they useful on the farm? 

Problem 210. If sheep have been shipped into your locality for fatten- 
ing, find where they came from, how they had lived before, what they 
are now being fed, where and when they will be marketed. 

Problem 211. If the mother dies, or will not own the lamb, how 
would you save the lamb ? 

Problem 212. What sort of foot has a sheep ? 

Problem 213. How much may a full-grown sheep weigh? 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

SWINE 

Swine, or hogs as they are more often called in America, have 
long endured an unenviable reputation. In ancient time, Moses 
was instructed to have his people abstain from eating pork be- 
cause it was unclean. Wherever hogs are kept in small numbers 
they are likely to be given poor houses and small yards ; and the 
fact that they are able to make such good use of waste materials^ 
from the kitchen and farm has added further to their lowly repu- 
tation . 

But, as we shall see, hogs are naturally clean in their habits, and 
will keep their houses clean and in order when it is made possible 
for them to do so. If we view them aright to-day, we must exalt 
their position somewhat. We are all dependent on them, either 
for lard or for pork, or for both. 

History. — The exact origin of swine is not certainly known. 
They belong to a family of animals that inhabit tropical countries 
mostly. It is thought that the farm hog has descended from the 
wild boar of Europe, North Africa, and Asia. Perhaps, also, a 
native race in India has had part in its development. 

It is probable that hogs were first domesticated in Asia. They 
are now very widely scattered. They have a tendency to return 
to a wild state when kept in mild climates. This is well shown by 
the wild razorback hogs found in a few places in the southern 
part of the United States. They doubtless have developed from 
ho^s brought to America by early settlers and which escaped 
from domestication or were allowed to roam freely in the woods. 

The wild boar is still found in central and southern Europe and 

278 



SWINE 



279 



Asia. From the earliest times it has been a much sought game 
animal, the boar hunt being one of the leading pastimes of royal 
and noble famihes. The boar is a swift and fierce animal, larger 
than our common hog. Its great tusks are dangerous weapons. 
When pursued it becomes ferocious and will attack both men 
and dogs. 

Under domestication the hog has been much changed. It is 
now quiet and docile, although old boars will still become vicious 
when aroused. The wild hog was not a fleshy animal, but the 
domestic hog has developed 
remarkable ability to fatten. 
Frequently it will fatten 
so much that its legs can 
scarcely support it and it is 
able to move about only with 
difficulty. 

The mafe of swine is known 
as a boar; the female as a 
sow. A young pig, particu- 
larly after weaning, is called 
a shoat or shote. 

The nature of hogs. — Unlike other domestic animals, the hog 
has almost no covering for his body. The few bristles and hairs do 
not protect him from the attacks of flies and other insects. Further- 
more, the hog does not perspire as a horse does. Thus it is that 
he has learned to wallow in water and mud to rid his body of pests 
and to keep it cool. Hogs that are kept in woods or groves have 
less need for the wallow. 

When hogs are given large yards or free range, and have a clean 
place in their houses for sleeping, they will keep their bedrooms 
neat and clean. It is only when the small pen is made to serve as 
dining-room, bed-room, and wallow, all in one, that the pig is filthy. 
That is not his fault. It is the way in which he is kept. 

Hogs have always had to dig for much of their food. As some 




Fig. 148. — The wild boar from which our 
present-day swine have descended. 



280 



AGRICULTURE 



of this food was the roots of plants, the name " rooting " has 
been apphed to the method by which they secured this part of 
their food. The strong, fleshy disk on the nose has been de- 
veloped for this purpose. Not only is it able to stand the wear 




Fig. 149. — Chester wlntc. 

of rooting, but it is very sensitive to smell and can readily detect 
what the animal is looking for. A pig will follow a track or trail 
almost as well as will a dog. 

Classification of hogs. — Hogs are raised for lard and bacon, and 
it is usual to divide them into two classes: lard or fat hogs, and 





Fig. 150. — Berkshire. 



Fig. 151. — Chcshhe. 



bacon hogs. These two classes overlap, as some hogs are useful 
for both purposes. 

Sometimes swine are classified simply according to size into 



SWINE 



281 



large breeds, medium breeds, and small breeds. Sometimes they 
are classified as white, black, and red hogs. 

Breeds of hogs. — The more common breeds in America are as 
follows : 

(1) Lard hogs : Berkshire, a black animal with white mark- 
ings and ears extending erect; Chester White, a white hog with 
drooping ears; Cheshire, white 
with erect ears ; Duroc-Jersey. red 
or chestnut with drooping ears ; 
Essex, black with small, fine, erect 
ears ; Poland China, black and 
white with drooping ears ; Vic- 
toria, white, with occasional dark 
spots on the skin, and erect ears. 
The Cheshire, Chester White, 

Duroc-Jersey, Poland China, and Victoria breeds were originated 
in America. 

(2) Bacon hogs : Hampshire, usually black with a white belt, 
four to twelve inches wide, encircling the body and including the 




Poland China 




Fig. 153. — Hampshire. 



fore legs ; ears incUned forward ; Large Yorkshire, white with erect 
ears ; Tamworth, red or chestnut with large, pointed, erect ears. 
If we classify, or group, the breeds of hogs according to size, 
they will be arranged as follows : 



282 



AGRICULTURE 



Chester White, Large Yorkshire, and Tam- 

Duroc Jersey, 




154. — Tarn worth. 



(1) Large breeds 
worth. 

(2) Medium breeds : Berkshire, Cheshire, 
Hampshire, Poland China, and Victoria. 

(3) Small breeds : Essex. 

The rearing of hogs. — When hogs are allowed to roam in the 
woods, they will live on roots and nuts, especially acorns and beech- 
nuts. The beechnut bacon of the 
semi-wild hogs of the southern 
states is of very high quaUty. 
Hogs will eat almost anything 
that comes in their way, be it 
animal or vegetable. On the 
frontier they once did good ser- 
vice as destroyers of rattlesnakes. 
There are two rather distinct, or 
unlike, methods of raising hogs in 
America. One is to keep a few animals in small pens and yards 
to use the wastes from kitchen and farm. This is the common 
practice in the East. Such hogs are raised largely for home use. 

The other method is the raising of hogs in large numbers to 
supply the market demands. It is practiced in the central west, 
where there are extensive hog farms. Usually, but not always, 
hogs are raised on farms on which beef cattle are being fattened 
for market. The hogs, as well as the cattle, are fattened on corn. 
For this reason the extensive hog farms are nearly all found in that 
part of the country where corn is the leading crop, that is, in the 
corn-belt. The hogs run with the cattle and are able to use the 
corn which the cattle waste and which otherwise would be lost. 
It is now coming to be the practice to provide small '^ colony 
houses '' for hogs. These are small houses or pens scattered 
about the fields, each accommodating three to six animals. 
This is for the purpose of guarding against the dreaded hog- 
cholera disease. When the animals live all together, the disease 



SWINE 283 

is likely to spread rapidly. If it invades one of the houses, the 
houses may be burned. 

Hogs enjoy free range, and when given good clover or alfalfa 
or rape pasture, will make rapid growth. Wherever they are raised 
in large numbers, pasture must be provided. 

Problem 214. Name and describe the breeds of hogs that are kept in 
your locality. 

Problem 215. What is done with /the products from the hogs on farms 
in your locality? If used at home, how are they prepared and stored? 
If shipped away, how are they prepared for market ? 

Problem 216. Tell how the hogs are cared for in your neighborhood — 
how they are housed, what pasture they have, what they are fed, how ex- 
pensive it is to raise them. 

Problejn 217. Watch the hogs for a few days and then tell what you 
have observed as to their habits, especially with reference to the care of 
the body. See whether you can find any indications that hogs like to have 
clean living-quarters, especially for sleeping. 

Problem 218. What kind of fence is needed to confined hogs? 

Problem 219. What is meant by '' pork on the hoof " ? How much 
is it worth in your neighborhood now? 
. Problem 220. What is a pig's foot like ? 

Problem 221. Can you tell the difference between a pig's track and 
a sheep's track ? How ? 

Problem 222. How heavy (what weight) was the largest hog you 
ever saw ? 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

POULTRY 

Not long ago poultry was a part of the farm stock of which no 
account whatever was taken. The fowls lived on refuse and such 
food as they could find on free range. Whatever they produced 
in the way of meat, eggs, and feathers was looked upon as clear 
gain. Because they thrived everywhere, cost very little to keep, 
multiplied rapidly, and returned a marketable product, they 
found a place on nearly every farm. Fowls are kept to-day on 
more farms or homesteads than any other domestic animals ex- 
cept cats. 

Farm poultry is of several kinds. Domestic fowls, or chickens, 
are the most common. Turkeys, ducks, geese, and guinea-fowls 
are reared in small flocks on many farms, and ducks and geese 
in large numbers on special farms. 

The origin of the domestic fowls. — The domestic, or barn- 
yard fowl, as it has been called, belongs to a race of scratching 
birds that includes also the turkey, guinea-fowl, pheasant, par- 
tridge, and grouse. Its origin seems to trace largely to a wild 
form called the jungle fowl, still common in the jungles of India, 
southern China, and the East Indies. This wild bird has a slender 
body and a single comb and is able to fly considerable distances. 

Another wild form also seems to have contributed to the early 
development of domestic fowls. It was the very ancient ancestor 
of the Aseel, or Malay fo^l, which has been bred in India for 
more than 3000 years. It has a larger body than the jungle 
fowl, a triple or pea comb, and yellow-skinned legs. It does not 
fly great distances. 

284 



POULTRY 



285 



The history of the domesticated fowl reaches far back into the 
past. About 1400 b.c. the fowl moved northward and eastward 
from southeastern India into China. Later it passed into Japan. 
Records that date 1000 b.c. mention cock-fighting as a pastime. 
It is not mentioned in the Old Testament, as are horses, cattle, 
sheep, and swine. But this is because it did not reach Syria until 
300 or 400 years before the beginning of the present era. 




Fig. 155. — The red jungle 
fowl, from which domestic 
fowls have come. 




Fig. 156. — The Aseel fowl, one of 
the original ancestors of do- 
mestic fowl. 



About 330 B.C., domestic fowls were taken to Europe from 
Persia. There they spread rapidly. From Europe they were 
brought to America in the early days of the colonization. Game 
fowls. Leghorns, Dorkings, and Scotch Grays were brought over 
by the colonists. From the Scotch Gray the Barred Plymouth 
Rock was developed. Later, Brahmas were imported from the 
Brahmapootra River, and Cochins from Shanghai. 

The nature of fowls. — It is the nature of fowls to " scratch 
for a living." For that purpose the legs are long and muscular, 
protected by horny scales, and the strong, flexible toes are armed 
with horny claws. Even when well fed they prefer to spend 



286 AGRICULTURE 

much of the day in scratching for food, especially for insects, 
grubs, and earthworms. 

Chickens are not provided with teeth and must swallow their 
food whole. It passes into the crop, where it is softened by juices. 
Then it passes into the gizzard — a veritable mill filled with 
gravel which the fowl has swallowed and which grinds the food 
into fine particles for digestion. 




Fig. 157. — Shelter from all harm — sunshine, rain, or danger. 

A chicken has no muscles in its throat to enable it to swallow 
water. It must first fill its beak and then hold its head up so that 
the water may run down its throat. 

In early spring, the hen begins to lay regularly, depositing 
not more than one egg each day. If allowed to follow her natural 
tendencies, she would cease laying and begin to sit as soon as she 
had accumulated a nest full — twelve to fifteen eggs. By re- 



POULTRY 287 

moving the eggs each day, the laying season may be lengthened 
several weeks or months. Domestic fowls have been developed 
by man to lay many eggs instead of only enough at a time for 
one brood. 

The dust bath, of which fowls are so fond, is very necessary for 
their health. It helps to reheve them from vermin, and cleanses 
the skin. It is nature that has taught hogs to wallow and fowls 
to use the dust bath for health and protection. 




Fig. 158. — Hen and ducklings. 

Breeds of poultry. — As there are beef and dairy types of cattle 
and wool and mutton types of sheep, so there are meat and egg 
types of chickens ; that is, some tj^es have been developed to 
fatten for meat purposes, and others to lay many eggs. All fowls 
lay eggs, but the meat types usually do not lay large numbers. 
There are also dual-purpose (two-purpose) fowls just as there are 
dual-purpose cattle ; that is, some fowls are raised both for eggs 
and for meat, and are valuable for both. 

More families, breeds, and varieties of poultry have been devel- 
oped than of any other kind of live-stock. Most of them are 
raised for profit. Some have been bred merely for fancy or plea- 
sure. Others have useful qualities, but have not become popular. 



288 



AGRICULTURE 



The majority, but not all, of the breeds that are raised in America 
belong to one of two families, the American and the Mediter- 
ranean families. 

The American family includes the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, 
and Rhode Island Red, and the Dominique and Java of lesser 
importance. These fowls are large and fatten readily for market. 




Fig. 159. — A turkey likes to wander through the fields. 

They are rather good layers, and perhaps we may call them dual- 
purpose breeds. 

The Mediterranean family includes the Leghorn and the Minorca, 
and the less important White-faced Black Spanish, Blue Anda- 
lusian, and Ancona. These are neat, active fowls that lay large 
numbers of eggs. They are the true egg breeds. They do not 
fatten readily. 

The Brahma and Cochin, which are true meat breeds, belong to 



POULTRY 



289 



the Asiatic famil}-. The Orpington, which is now raised in con- 
siderable numbers in America, belongs to the Enghsh family. It 
is a dual-purpose breed. 

Color of eggs. — Most of the eggs from farm poultry are either 
brown or w^hite. Brown eggs are laid by Plymouth Rock, Wyan- 
dotte, Rhode Island Red, Brahma, and Cochin fowls. White 
eggs are laid b}^ Leghorn and 
Minorca fowls. Medium 
colored or tinted eggs are laid 
by Dorking and Orpington 
fowls. 

The color of eggs is some- 
times an important factor in 
their sale. Some markets will 
buy only white-shelled eggs, 
others only those having brown 
shells. There is considerable 




Fig. 160. — Embden geese. 



variation in color and shape of eggs, even in the same breed. 

The care of poultry. — By nature fowls are able to care for 
themselves. But by nature they lay few eggs, and are not likely 
to be fat enough for market when needed. 

Fowls that are kept for profit must be fed proper foods, at regu- 
lar intervals, must have clean, well-ventilated houses, and plenty 
of room for outdoor exercise. There must be opportunity for 
scratching and for the dust bath. The natural desire of the hen 
is to hide her nest, and she should be provided with a secluded 
place in which to lay her eggs. 

All classes of poultry, including domestic fowls, turkeys, ducks, 
geese, and guineas, eat freely of grain and meat foods and green 
forage. Domestic fowls eat most freely of grains ; turkeys and 
guineas are insect-hunters ; ducks and geese are grazers and 
fishers. 

Every ration for domestic fowls should contain whole grain, 
as wheat, corn, oats, or peas ; ground feed, as wheat bran, wheat 
u 



290 AGRICULTURE 

middlings, corn meal, or ground oats ; meat in some form, as 
beef scraps, green cut bone, or skimmed milk; green food, as 
clover pasture, mangel beets, or cabbage ; and grit, as cracked 
oyster shells. Fresh, clean drinking water should always be 
available. 

Poultry should be fed properly balanced rations for particular 
purposes : for eggs, or for meat, or to encourage the production 
of both. They like variety, and do better when several kinds 
of food are given. They should have food that they like. 

Hatching. — When a small number of chickens are to be raised 
each year, broody hens may well be used for the hatching. Fowls 
in the American and Asiatic families are good setters. Those 
in the Mediterranean family are usually very poor sitters. 

Chickens may be hatched in an incubator. This is a machine 
in which eggs can be kept at the same temperature as when covered 
by a hen. Chickens hatched in ah incubator are frequently 
reared in another machine, called a brooder, until they are able 
to care for themselves. A brooder takes the place of the mother 
by supplying for the chicks protection and the right degree of 
heat. Incubators and brooders are used mostly when chickens 
are reared in large numbers. 

About twenty-one days are required for hatching the eggs of 
domestic fowls. 

Problem 223. How does the covering, or coat, of fowls differ from the 
covering of other domestic animals? What advantage over other ani- 
mals does this give to fowls ? 

Problem 221^. On how many farms in your locality are chickens kept ? 
Are they in large flocks or small flocks ? How are they cared for ? 

Problem 225. If there are any farms in your neighborhood on which 
poultry are raised in large numbers, find out how they are taken care of. 
Explain the differences between handling very large flocks and small flocks. 

Problem 226. Name and describe all the types and breeds of poultry 
reared in your locality so far as you are able. Tell which are meat breeds, 
which egg breeds, which dual-purpose breeds. 

Problem 227. If eggs are shipped from your neighborhood, find whether 
the market to which they go has any preference as to color. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 

BEES 

The raising of honey bees has always been one of the occupations 
of man. In the book of Genesis we read that when Jacob sent 
his sons down into -Egypt to buy corn, he told them to take with 
them, among other things, " sl little honey." Up until the 
seventeenth century honey was the only means people had for 
sweetening their food, as sugar was unknown. 

The development of bee-keeping. — Ancient Egypt, Babylon, 
Assyria, Palestine, Greece, Rome, and Carthage, all had their 
bee-keepers. The keeping of bees in Egypt to-day is probably 
not very different from what it was four thousand years ago. 
At, that time floating apiaries were common in Egypt, and they are 
still found on the Nile. 

The raising of bees has received a great deal of attention down 
through the centuries, and more books have been written about 
bees than about any other domestic animal. It was not until 1852, 
however, that the production of honey as a great commercial indus- 
try began. In that year Mr. Langstroth, of Philadelphia, invented 
a new kind of hive that greatly changed the methods of keeping 
bees, and made it possible for one person to manage a large number 
of hives. It is said that the Langstroth hive has meant as much to 
bee-keeping as the invention of the locomotive has to transporta- 
tion. Most of the hives in use to-day are fashioned after the one 
made by Mr. Langstroth. 

The keeping of bees for honey is now a large industry in America. 
In almost every community there is at least one apiary, or place 
where bees are kept. The honey and wax produced each year in 

291 



292 



AGRICULTURE 



the United States is valued at about $25,000,000. In one year, 
California exported five hundred carloads of honey. Single bee- 
keepers have produced as much as eighty tons in a year. 

There are different types of bees. — Bees, like other insects and 
animals that have existed for many centuries and in various parts of 
the world, have developed many varieties or races. They are of 
different sizes, shapes, colors, and habits. Some are wild forms 




Fig. 161. — The keeping of bees is one of the farm industries. 



that have never been domesticated by man. Most of them have 
stings, but there are races of stingless bees in South America, 
some of which have been imported to this country. 

The most popular honey bees in America are the Itahans, whose 
original home was in Italy. There were brought to this country in 
1860. A race known as Carniolan has found favor in cool, elevated 



BEES 293 

places in the northern part of America. Several other races are 
kept in a small way. 

The bee colony. — Bees live together in very great numbers, in 
well-ordered households, or colonies. If the affairs of their colonies 
were not well ordered, they could not live together. Their govern- 
ment is peculiar, however, in that in each colony there are many 
kings and only one queen. The kings do little or no work, while 
the queen works as hard and longer than any of her subjects. 
The common citizens are all females, and they are busy all the 
day long. 

The number of bees in a colony will vary. There should be at 
least 40,000 in a colony that is in good condition. Most of them 
are workers, a few hundred are drones or kings, and there is only 
the one queen. 

The queen. — The mistress of the hive is a very graceful insect, 
with a long pointed body that extends far beyond the tips of her 
closed wings. She is the largest member of the household. She 
starts her life in an ordinary worker egg. This egg is selected by 
the worker bees for special attention throughout its development. 
After the queen is three days old from the egg she is fed on a special 
food called '' royal jelly." After feasting on this for five days her 
cell is closed and she undergoes further development. When she 
finally emerges, she is full-grown. 

The first task of the new queen is to hunt for other queen cells, 
and, if any are found, to sting the occupants to death. If she 
finds another fully developed queen in the hive, war is waged be- 
tween them until one is killed. If the workers interfere in the 
fight, she takes her followers from the hive to a new home. 

The queen is responsible for maintaining the colony. She will 
lay as many as 3000, and occasionally 5000, eggs in a day. 
During her lifetime she may deposit 1,500,000 to 2,500,000 eggs. 

The workers. — The workers are the citizens of the colony, and 
are the smallest members of the household. They are all females, 
but unlike the queen, which received special attention, they are 



294 AGRICULTURE 

not perfectly developed and cannot lay eggs. Only the queen has 
this power. The workers are provided with long tongues, by 
means of which they can reach deep into flowers to gather the 
nectar. This they deposit in pollen or nectar baskets on their 
hind legs for transportation to the hive for storing. 

The drone. — The drone is the king, whose only responsibility 
is to mate with the queen. Even though he is an idler, he is a 
very necesary part of the household. He is perfectly developed 
for his purpose, is larger than the worker, and broader and more 
blunt in form than either the queen or the worker. He has no 
pollen baskets and no sting. His tongue is not long enough to 
gather honey from flowers. He has no responsibility for the food 
supply of the colony. 

How bees live and work. — Wild bees live in hollow logs aniin 
caves. Those that have been domesticated are provided with 
houses, called hives. A hive usually is a box, on top of which one 
or two stories, called " supers," are placed. In the lower story, 
or box part of the hive, are placed frames which the bees fill with 
comb, in which the queen may deposit eggs for the new brood. On 
these frames a considerable supply of honey is stored also. The 
supers are filled with box-like frames, called sections, each of which 
will hold a pound of honey. By nature, bees place their brood in 
the lower part of their nests and most of their reserve honey above. 
Bee-keepers take advantage of this fact, and remove the sections 
from the supers as soon as they are filled and replace them with 
empty ones. It is not safe to take all the honey from the brood 
chamber below, as twenty-five or thirty pounds will be needed by 
the colony for winter use. 

Honey is made from the nectar of flowers, gathered by bees. 
The nectar is carried in small receptacles with which bees are pro- 
vided, Here it is mixed with a secretion made by the bee that 
produces changes in the nectar which result in the formation of 
honey. After the honey has been deposited in the comb, it is 
exposed to the air for a while before it is capped. This ripens it. 



BEES 295 

Comb foundation. — The honey comb, in which the honey is 
stored, is made up of long, tube-hke cells that are six-sided. When 
the sections are removed from the supers and replaced by new ones, 
or when new brood frames are placed in the lower part of the hive, 
to accomodate the young, the bee-keeper furnishes the sections and 
frames with what is called comb foundation, or foundation for the 
building of new comb. This is a thin sheet of beeswax which has 
been pressed by a machine that has covered its entire surface with 
a net-work of impressions of the six-sided cells. From these im- 
pressions the new cells are built. 

The skilful bee-keeper usually fills the brood frames completely 
with the comb foundation. In the pound sections, ordinarily only 
a small piece, called a " starter," is used. Bees naturally dislike 
small frames such as those in the pound sections, but when they 
find foundation in them, they proceed to fill them out. 

Swarming. — Bees will swarm when there are two queens and 
one is unable to destroy the other. In such an event, part of the 
colony will leave the hive with one of them in search of a new home. 

But this is not the only cause of swarming. Bees will swarm 
when they have become over-prosperous. When there is an abun- 
dance of food on hand and numerous young bees in process of growth, 
the queen, accompanied by the larger part of her colony, will rush 
from the hive to give vent to pent-up energy. They go forth with 
their sacs filled with honey. They maneuver in the air for a while, 
then settle on a branch or bush near by, at the same time sending 
out scouts to find a suitable home in a hollow tree or elsewhere. 
Then it is that the bee-keeper gives them a hive merely by shaking 
them into it or down in front of an enlarged entrance. They are 
glad to find a home so soon, particularly if it is clean, and usually 
will take possession at once. 

By removing part of the accumulated honey, so that the bees are 
kept at work, they may sometimes be prevented from swarming. 

Protecting the colony. — Bees must be protected from the cold in 
winter or they may perish. The best method is to use the '^box " 



296 



AGRICULTURE 



hive in which the inner part, or real hive, is surrounded by an outer 
case which leaves a space between the two to be filled with chaff or 
other good packing material. A small opening is left so that the 
bees can go out in good weather. 




Fig. 1(52. — 8wanu of bees on limb of a cherry-tree. 



The packing is left in the case during the summer as well as the 
winter, as it helps to protect the hives from the hot sun. The hives 
should be placed during the summer where they will be shaded part 
of the day. The grass should be cut around them so that the 



BEES 297 

honey-laden bees will not become entangled when they return to the 
hive. 

Problem 228. If you have ever found a wild bees' nest, tell where you 
found it and how it was protected ; what the comb looked like ; whether the 
honey tasted the same as that from domesticated bees. 
' Proble7n 229. If bees are kept by any one in the neighborhood, ask him 
to show you a hive where the bees are at work. Look for the cells in which 
young bees are developing. Find out what a brood frame is, a section, a 
super, and comb foundation. 

Problem 230. Does all honey that is offered for sale look and taste alike ? 
Is some lighter colored than other ? What is the cause of the difference ? 

Problem 231. Name five plants from which honey bees secure nectar. 



% 



CHAPTER XL 

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 

Every household uses milk. Nearly every farm produces milk. 
Dairying is one of the most extensive industries in America. 

What milk is. — We all know that milk is nature's food for the 
newly born of many of the larger animals. Frequently the young 
are fed little except milk for many months, and during these 
months make rapid growth. This is because milk is a nearly 
perfect food. 

The value of any product for food depends on the kinds and 
amount of nutriment, or nourishing food substances, it contains, 
and the form in which the nutriment exists ; that is, whether it 
is easily digested and made use of in the body. Milk contains 
all of the food materials that are needed for the development of 
the body and they are in a very easily digested form. There is 
water, which is necessary for all growth ; ash or mineral matter, 
for the making of bones ; protein, for the production of flesh and 
muscle ; fat and sugar, to supply heat and energy. 

When we speak of the comjposition of milk, we mean the pro- 
portions, or relative amounts, of these several materials, or con- 
stitutents, that are present. The composition is usually stated 
in percentages, as that is the best method of comparing propor- 
tions. The percentages are not exactly the same for the different 
breeds of cows or for individual cows. That is one reason why 
some are better milk-producers than others. But if we average 
the composition for all of them, we shall find that milk contains, 

298 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



299 



in round numbers, approximately the following proportions of 



materials 



4 per cent fat 
2.6 per cent casein 

.7 per cent albumen 

5 per cent sugar 
.7 per cent ash 

87 per cent water 



100 



Some of these substances may be new to us, but we shall learn 
what they are. 

The fat. — If we were to examine milk under a very strong mi- 
scrope, we should find that there are floating in it, that is, in the 




Fig. 163. — An enlarged view of cream, whole milk, and skimmed milk under the 
microscope, showing the relative number of particles of fat in each, a, repre" 
sents cream ; h, whole milk ; c, skimmed milk. 



fluid, or water}^ part of it, many small round bodies of different 
sizes. These floating bodies are minute particles, called globules, 
of fat. They are so small that there may be as many as 100,000,000 
of them in a single drop of milk. 

Although fat usually makes up only about 4 per cent of average 
milk, .it is still the most valuable part. It is the substance from 
which butter is made. It is part of cheese also and the value of 
cheese may depend on the amount of fat that it contains. Great 



300 AGRICULTURE 

quantities of milk are bought and sold for prices that are deter- 
mined by the amount of fat present. In most states there are 
laws which specify that milk offered for sale must contain at least 
a certain amount of fat. Usually, 3 or 3.25 per cent is the lowest 
amount that is allowed. Milk may contain as much as 6 per 
cent, or more. 

Cream is largely composed of fat. When we skim or separate 
milk, we remove the fat in the cream. The cream contains also 
small amounts of all the other substances in milk, which are re- 
moved with fat. '^ Thin" cream contains a relatively large per- 
centage of these other substances. ''Heavy" or " thick " cream 
is rich in fat and contains much less of the other constitu- 
ents. , 

Casein. — This is the part of milk which curdles when milk^. 
sours. It does not float, as does the fat, but is partially dissolved, 
and is somewhat in the condition of thin jelly. It helps to make 
milk " thicker " than water. After cream has been taken from 
milk, the most valuable part remaining is casein. It is this sub- 
stance which makes skimmed milk and buttermilk valuable for 
human or animal food. It contains nitrogen, and is therefore 
proteid food. 

Albumen. — This part of the milk is much the same thing as 
the white of egg. Like the casein, it also contains nitrogen, and 
is therefore a valuable food element. 

Sugar. — Milk contains more sugar than fat. It is not just like 
granulated sugar, but has many of the same characteristics. 

The sugar can be separated from milk. It is used by druggists 
for covering '' sugar-coated " pills. Because it is so easily digested, 
it is used also in the manufacture of infants' foods. 

Ash. — ■ Ash is the mineral part of milk, and is especially useful 
in the formation of bones. It is grayish white in color. 

Skimmed milk is milk from which part or nearly all the fat has 
been removed, or skimmed. It is seldom possible to remove 
every bit of the fat. Skimmed milk therefore contains the same 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



301 



substances as whole milk, except that there is less fat. For this 
reason it still has much food value. 

Buttermilk is the liquid part that remains from the churning of 
cream into butter. Its composition is nearly the same as that of 
skimmed milk except that it contains more fat. It is unlike 
skimmed milk, however, because cream is usually sour before it 
is churned. Souring changes the form of some of the casein and 
the sugar. 

The weight of milk ^ Milk is slightly heavier than water because 
of the substances it contains. Since it is largely water, the in- 




FiG. 164. — Different kinds of milking pails. The one at the left allows the mos 
dirt and dust to enter while milking, and the one at the right the least. The 
latter is the best of the four. It is coming into use. 



crease in weight is not very great. If we take enough milk so that 
the weight of the water in it alone is one pound, the weight of 
the whole milk will be about 1.032 pounds. That is, milk is about 
1.032 times as heavy as water. 

The care of milk. — There is no other food product which is 
so easily made unfit for use as milk. Farmers may lose much of 
the profit they should receive from their cows because the milk is 
not produced under the best conditions and handled in the best way. 

Milk is most likely to be spoiled by bacteria. We have learned 
that countless millions of very minute plants, called bacteria, in- 
habit the soil. Other kinds of bacteria live in milk. Some of 
those in milk are useful, some harmless, and others harmful. 

When milk is kept in a warm place, and sours, it is not heat that 



302 



AGRICULTURE 



has soured it, but the harmful bacteria, which are most active 
where it is warm. Cold milk does not sour quickly because the 
bacteria cannot work where it is cold. 

Every bit of dust and dirt that falls into the milk is loaded with 




Fia. 165. — Cooling the milk and exposing it to the air. When this is done in 
clean place immediately after milking, the milk will keep sweet longer. 



bacteria. Hairs and dirt may be brushed into the pail by the 
milker, either from his clothes or from the animal's body. Dust, 
chaff, and many other particles that float in the air in stables may 
fall into the pails while they are exposed. If the milk pails and 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



303 



cans and strainer cloths are not perfectly clean, they may carry 
bacteria to the milk. A few bacteria enter milk while it is still 
in the udder and before 
it has been drawn. 

In order to produce 
clean milk, in which 
there will be few bac- 
teria, the cows must be 
cleaned before milking, 
the suits and hands of 
the milkers must be 
clean, and all pails and 
other utensils which the 
milk will touch must 
be perfectly clean. 
Bacteria hide in cracks 
and seams and rusty 
places in cans, and can- 
not be killed by washing 
unless scalding water is 
used. It is better if the 
utensils can be exposed 
to steam after they have 
been washed. Handling 
hay or bedding or any- 
thing else which will 
stir up dust in the 
stable should not be 
done during or just be- 
fore milking time. 

As soon as possible after milk is drawn it should be taken from 
the stable. It should be strained at once so as to remove the dirt. 
It should then be cooled, by placing the can in a tank of cold water, 
Qr by other means. No matter how careful the milker has been, 




166. — A hand separator for use on the farm to 
remove the cream from the milk. 



304 AGRICULTURE 

some bacteria will have found their way into the milk. By cooling 
it as soon as drawn to a temperature of 50° F., the bacteria will be 
prevented from multiplying. They cannot grow when the milk 
is cold. If the milk is allowed to remain warm, they will develop 
rapidly and soon sour it. 

Health}'^ cows, kept in clean, sunny, well-ventilated stables, 
will do their part in producing clean milk. Most bacteria and 




Fig. 167. — Milk in bottles. This is the cleanest way to market milk and cream, 

dirt fall in while the milk is being handled, and the farmer him- 
self is responsible for this. 

The Babcock test. — Since the market value of milk depends very 
largely on the percentage of fat it contains, it is a great aid to 
farmers who produce milk to know how much fat there is in the 
milk from each of their cows. The milk from some cows contains 
much fat. That from others contains so little that their milk 
will not sell for as much as it costs the farmer to keep them. He 
loses money on every such cow in his herd. 

Fortunately, there has been discovered a simple method of finding 
the percentage of fat in milk. It is called the Babcock test. We 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



305 



shall learn how it is made in Problem 236. It is now used by very 
many farmers, and has been the means of saving them many 
millions of dollars. Dairy farmers who test their milk usually 
dispose of the cows that do not 
^' pay for their board/' and keep 
only the profitable ones. 

Butter and cheese. — The two 
most important products made 





Fig. 168. 



-An ancient device, said to have 
been used for churning. 



Fig. 169. — A convenient churn 
for use on the farm. 



from milk are butter and cheese. They, hke milk, are also used 
in nearly every household in the land. They are both nutritious 
foods. Formerly they were made altogether on the farms, but 
now are manufactured to a large extent in special factories called 
creameries and cheese factories. 

In the making of butter, only cream is used, as butter is made 
from the fat of milk. Cheese may be made from cream, or the 
whole milk, or skimmed milk. Most of the cheese we buy at the 
stores is made from the whole milk. 



Problem 232. How many farms in your locality produce milk for sale ? 
Do they sell whole milk or cream ? What becomes of the milk they sell ? 
If cream is sold, what use is made of the skimmed milk ? 

Problem 233. If there is a creamery, cheese factory, or skimming sta- 
tion in your neighborhood, find out how much milk it handles every day, 
how many cows are required to produce the milk, how it is paid for ; also, 
what is done with the product. 



306 



AGRICULTURE 




MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 307 

Problem 23Jf. Write a short essay on how milk should be handled on 
the farm. 

Problem 235. In the evening, secure a quantity of milk and keep it 
over night in a medium, but not cold, temperature. Early in the morn- 
ing mix it thoroughly, and pour equal quantities into each of four pint 
bottles or glass fruit jars. (These jars should be thoroughly washed and 
scalded before the milk is poured into them.) Cover the jars or bottles 
with paper to prevent the entrance of dust. Then place one bottle in 
a dish or pail of ice-water, one in water at 55° or 60°, one at 70° to 75°, 
and the other at 90° to 100° Fahrenheit. It will be well to shake the 
bottles frequently when first put into the water, until the milk becomes 
the same temperature as the water. Keep the water in the dishes at the 
above temperatures throughout the day, and notice when the milk in each 
jar first tastes sour, and also when it curdles. In which does it sour first ? 
Which last? Why? What does this teach about the handling of 
milk? 

Problem 236. The Babcock test, to determine the richness of milk, 
or the percentage of fat it contains: 

Utensils. — A hand-power centrifugal Babcock tester, at least two milk 
test bottles, one pipette to measure the milk, one acid measure, about one 
pint of sulfuric acid with specific gravity between 1.82 and 1.83, a few 
ounces of milk, and some hot water. All the necessary apparatus and acid 
can be purchased for about five dollare from any dairy supply company. 
They can be ordered through a hardware dealer. Sulfuric acid is sold 
also at drug stores. Perhaps the equipment can be borrowed from a dairy 
farmer in the locality. If there is a creamery or skimming station near by, 
the class may go there to perform the test. 

Sampling the milk. — The milk to be tested should be thoroughly 
mixed just before the sample is taken, to make sure that the fat or cream 
is evenly distributed. This can best be done by gently pouring back and 
forth between two vessels several times. The milk should be neither very 
cold nor hot. 

Place the small end of the pipette at the center of the milk and suck 
the milk up above the 17.6 cc. mark on the tube. Quickly place the index 
finger over the upper end of the pipette and by releasing the pressure allow 
the milk to run out until its upper surface is even with the 17.6 cc. mark 
when the pipette is held straight up and down. 

Place the point of the pipette a short distance into the neck of the test 
bottle, holding it against the glass and with both pipette and bottle at an 
angle. Remove the finger to allow the milk to flow into the bottle. Be 
sure to get every drop of the milk, taking care to drain the pipette and 



308 AGRICULTURE 

to blow the last drop into the bottle. A little practice should make any 
one skilful with the pipette. 

It is best always to make this test in duplicate ; hence, two bottles are 
needed for each lot of milk. 

Using the acid. — The acid is very strong and must be handled with 
great care. If any gets on the hands, face, or clothing, it should be washed 
off quickly and water should always be ready for this purpose. Do not 
leave the acid where young children can get it. 

After all the samples of milk to be tested have been measured, the acid 
should be added. Fill the acid measure to the 17.5 cc. mark with acid that 
is neither very cold nor hot. Pour this into the bottle with the milk, 
holding the bottle in a slanting position. The acid will then carry down 
any milk left in the neck and follow the glass surface to the bottom of the 
bottle and form a layer under the milk. 

Hold the bottle by the neck and give it a circular motion for a few 
minutes, mixing the milk and acid until no milk or clear acid is visible. 
By this time the contents will be dark colored and hot. This change is due^^ 
to the acid dissolving all the soUd constituents of the milk except the fat, 
which it does not affect. 

Whirling the bottles. — The bottles are whirled to separate the fat so that 
it can be measured. It is lighter than the remainder of the milk and will 
be forced to the surface. The bottles should be hot when whirled. If 
necessary they may be heated by standing in hot water before being put 
into the machine. A steam machine is easily kept hot when in use. Other 
kinds should have a small amount of boiling hot water placed in them. 

Place the bottles in the machine so that each one will have another 
directly opposite, to keep the machine in balance. Whirl the bottles five 
minutes at the proper speed for the machine in use, directions for which 
come with the machine. Then stop it and, with the pipette or other con- 
venient means, add hot water to each bottle until the contents come up 
to the bottom of the neck. Then whirl two minutes. Add hot water 
enough to bring the top of the fat nearly to the top of the graduations on 
the neck of the bottles. Whirl one minute. The fat should then form 
a clear column in the neck of the bottle. 

Reading the percentage. — Keep the fat warm so that it will be in a fluid 
condition. Hold the bottle by the upper end of the neck, allowing it to 
hang in a perpendicular, or upright position, on the level with the eye. 
Read the mark or graduations at the extreme top and bottom of the fat 
column. The difference between these is the percentage of fat in the milk. 
Most test bottles are made to read as high as 10 per cent. Each percent- 
age has its number marked on the glass and there are five small spaces, 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 309 

each representing .2 per cent, between these principal marks. Thus, if the 
top of the fat column is even with the third short mark above the 7 mark, 
the top reading would be 7.6 ; and if the bottom is halfway between the 
first and second short marks above the 3 mark, the bottom reading would 
be 3.3 ; the difference is 4.3, which is the percentage of fat, or the number 
of pounds of fat in 100 pounds of the milk tested. 

Notes. — Specific gravity means the weight of the acid compared with 
the weight of an equal volume, or amount, of water. The sulfuric acid 
should be about 1.82 times as heavy as water. 

1 cc. means 1 cubic centimeter, or about 20 drops. 

If the fat column is clouded with white specks, probably the acid was 
not strong enough, or not enough was used, or the temperature was not 
high enough. 

If the fat column is clouded with dark specks, probably the acid was 
too strong, or too much was used, or the heat was too great 

Always keep the acid bottle closed when not in use, or the acid will 
lose strength. Remember that it is a poison and that it will burn wood or 
clothes that it touches. 



CHAPTER XLI 

THE IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS 

From our study of farm animals we have learned that they have 
undergone great changes since the time when man first captured 
them from the wild. Some have been transformed so much that 
they now hear little n^semblance to their ancient ancestors. The 
changes, or improvements, have been of such a nature as to make 
them more useful to man. - — 

The breeding of animals. — All animals grow old and die, or are 
slaughtered for food. Other animals are born and take their places. 
Not only is a new animal born to take the place of one that dies, 
but every pair of animals is abh^ to i)ro(lu(;e more than two others. 
As a result, the total number of animals in the world increases. 

But it is not enough tliat new animals and mon* of them shall 
appear. These new animals must be desiral)le and useful. They 
nuist ])ossess (lualities or charactc^-istics or habits that will make 
them valuable or s(n-vi('eabl(\ In ordc^r to be sure that his new ani- 
mals will have the (qualities or characteristics that he wants them to 
have, the stockman chooses the }:)arents. This choice of parents 
so as to secure offspring with particular (characteristics is called 
^' breeding." 

Objects of breeding. — The farmer who breeds cattle may have 
eitluu- one of two objects in mind. He may wish to maintain, or 
keep, the type of his animals just as they are, without any special 
change ; or he may desirfe to produce a new type or breed that will 
be wholly different from the parents. A stockman who has small 
red cows may dt^sire to i)roduce otlu^rs like them ; or he may wish 
from the animals to produce large red cows. In the former case, 

310 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS 



311 



he desires to maintain, or continue, his type; in the latter, he 
desires to produce a new type. Some stockmen are endeavoring 
just now to produce a new type or race of animals, called cattaloes, 
by choosing one parent from common farm beef animals and the 
other from the buffalo tribe. 




Fig. 171. — Southdown ewe. Developed as a medium wool-mutton type. 



What to breed for. — A carpenter does not begin to build a house 
until he or the architect has drawn plans and knows just what the 
completed house should look like in all of its parts. In the same 
way, the stockman should have in mind just what form or type of 
animal he wants to secure before he begins to breed. The carpen- 
ter has in mind an ideal house he wishes to build ; the stockman 



312 



AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 172. — Du roc- Jersey, an excel- 
lent breed that has been developed 
in America from common hogs. 



must have in mind an ideal animal he wishes to develop. This is 
the first step in the improvement of animals, and it is the most im- 
portant because everything else in 
breeding will be shaped by the 
object, or ideal, it is desired to 
secure. 

The choice of parents. — After 
the carpenter has planned his 
house and has his ideal in mind, 
he chooses such materials as will 
give him the appearance in the 
house that he wants. He does not 
use anything and everything that comes to hand. 

Such a choice of materials, or rather of parents, is equall>^im^ 
})ortant for the stock-breeder. If he is to secure new animals that 
will be like the ideal he has in mind, he must choose parents that are 
most likely to produce that ideal. In other words, he should look 
over his herd and choose for parents the animals that already are 
nearest to his ideal. 

If a farmer's herd is comprised of small red cattle with long horns, 
and he desires to develop a new herd of large red cattle with short 
horns, he will choose for parents the animals that combine largest 
size with the shortest horns. He may not be able to take the 
largest of his cows because she may have exceptionally long horns. 
And he may not be able to take the one with the shortest horns, for 
she may be a very small animal. He will have to choose the ones 
that, on the average, seem to have the best combination of size 
with shorter horns. He will breed from such animals unless they 
have other characteristics that are undesirable. 

The offspring. — The stockman cannot expect that the first 
offspring will measure up to his ideal. But it will be a step toward 
it. Perhaps the first offspring will be larger than the parents, but 
have the same length of horns ; or perhaps it will be of the same size 
as the parents, Init have shorter horns ; or perhaps it will com. 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS 



313 



bine the two and be slightly larger, with horns that are a trifle 
shorter. Well and good ; some progress has been made toward the 
ideal. 

The second step is to use this offspring for one of the parents e f a 
new generation, and to choose to mate with it an animal of the other 







Fig. 173. — Guernsey cow. This animal has descended from parents that were 
bred, or developed, for dairy type. 



sex that most nearly represents the ideal. The offspring of this 
pair is likely to show still further progress toward the ideal. 

The stockman who sets out to improve his animals or to create 
a new type or breed must have patience. His results will come 
slowly, a little at a time. But so long as he holds to his ideal, and 
always chooses the parents that most closely resemble that ideal, 
he will make progress, unless he is trying to accomplish something 



314 AGRICULTURE 

that is impossible. Patience and perseverance are essential quali- 
ties in the successful stock-breeder. 

Pedigree. — Farmers who breed Uve-stock speak frequently about 
the pedigrees of their animals. They do not ,care to use an animal 
for breeding unless it has a good pedigree. Let us see what they 
mean. 

Animals, like human beings, have parents, and grandparents, and 
great-grandparents, and others in succession reaching away back 




Fig. 174. — Saddle horse. Developed by combining trotting horse and coach horse 
characteristics, so as to secure seed, weight, and appearance. 



to the beginning. Most of the characteristics of an animal now 
living are what it has inherited from its ancestors. If the ances- 
tors of a dairy cow have all been of medium size, black and white, 
and have been heavy producers of milk, we can expect with much 
certainty that the present cow will show the same characteristics. 
If the ancestors have not been chosen with any care, and some 
have been large, others small; there has been no attention paid to 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS 315 

the color, and there have been both good and poor milk-producers 
in the list, we cannot tell what to expect from the present animal. 
We do not know what to expect of her offspring. In the former 
case, we say the cow has a good pedigree, in the latter a poor 
pedigree. 

We may define a pedigree, then, as the connected record or list of 
all the ancestors of an animal. If the achievements or qualities 




Fig. 175. — Morgan. Alight driving horse that the United States government is 

now breeding. 

of the ancestors have been almost uniformly good, the animal is 
said to have a good pedigree ; if they have been mixed or poor, the 
pedigree is poor. 

The longer any line, or family, of animals is bred to a certain 
standard or ideal, the more uniform will the offspring represent that 
ideal. For this reason, the farmer who wishes to improve his stock 
desires to use animals for parents that have had good pedigrees 
so that their good qualities are " fixed," or established. He then 



316 AGRICULTURE 

has confidence that he will secure certain results. And he can do 
his work intelligently, as he knows what to expect from his animals. 
Improving the farm live-stock. — How is the farmer to improve 
his live-stock if he has only poor or medium animals whose ances- 
try is largely unknown or whose pedigree is poor? It is not 




FiG.5[176. — Mules are the product of animal breeding. They are hybrids, or 
crosses, between the horse and the ass. 



necessary for him to sell all that he has and buy good animals. 
He can begin with what is on hand. 

Improvement in the farm herd or flocks will be brought about 
by breeding from the best animals only and gradually selling all 
the others. The father of the herd is such an important part, 
that the farmer will improve his animals much faster if he buys a 
sire that has a good pedigree. The second generation should then 
be better than the first, the third better than the second, and so 
on. Many excellent herds have been built up in this way. 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS 317 

Problem 237. Are most of the farm animals in your neighborhood com- 
mon stock or "grades," or are they pure-bred? What do we mean by 
pure-bred stock ? 

Problem 238. What kinds of cows, grades or pure-breds, have the farm- 
ers who are producing the most milk ? If ^any of them have pure-bred 
stock, do they sell the calves ? Do they receive more for the calves than the 
man who sells grade stock? 

Problem 239. Are pure-bred stock, more, or less, expensive to keep than 
common grade stock ? 

Problem 2/^0. If there are cattle on your father's farm or a neighboring 
farm, find out whether the poorest cows in the herd eat as much as the best 
cows. Would it pay to dispose of the poor cows and improve the herd so 
that all will be nearly as good as the best cows ? 

Problem 2Jf.l- Borrow a written pedigree of one of the best animals in 
the neighborhood. Ask the owner to explain it to you. Find out particu- 
larly why it is a good pedigree. Then bring it to school and explain it to the 
class. 



JUN 12 19H 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 
lUN 12 19(1 



